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:rican School Series. 




LOUISVILLE, KY. 

PUBLISHERS. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. ? 



J UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. ! 



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V 



INTRODUCTORY LESSONS 



IN 



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ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



BY 



NOBLE BUTLER. 



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LOUISVILLE, KY. 
JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

PUBLISHERS. 



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PREFACE. 



This little book is designed merely as an introduction to a 
larger work on the same subject by the same author. Its object 
is to make the young learner acquainted with the parts of speech 
and their inflections. 

Much more reliance is placed on the exercises than on the 
definitions. It is recommended to the teacher that, in addition 
to the examples and illustrations, he should take some simple 
reading-book and give his pupils thorough practice in distin- 
guishing the parts of speech, cases, moods, tenses, etc. The 
learner must, of course, thoroughly understand every sentence 
he undertakes to analyze. The First, Second, and Third School 
Headers, by Noble Butler, are well adapted to this purpose, all 
the lessons having been prepared with special reference to the 
capacity of very young children, and the words being easy and 
generally short. 

Butler's Practical Grammar of the English Language forms 
a sequel to the present work. 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1846, by 

MORTON & GRISWOLD, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the 
District of Kentucky. 

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1871, by 

JOHN P. MORTON AND COMPANY, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 

EI-EOTROTYPED BY ROBERT ROWEM,. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



OETHOGEAPHT. 

Letters are divided into two classes — vowels 
and consonants. 

A, e, i, o, u, are vowels. 

B> c > d ? f> 9? &> J> h h m > n > P? ft r > s > t> v -> *i *> 
are consonants. 

W and y are consonants when they are imme- 
diately followed by a vowel sound in the same 
syllable; as in youth, yellow <, want, twine. 

In other cases w and y are vowels ; as in now, 
1, sky, trying, holy. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Tell how many vowels and how many consonants 
there are in each of the following words: 

Louisville, Cincinnati, Madison, Nashville, Boston, coming, 
violence, useful, star, senate, house, vowel, consonant. 

2. Tell in which of the following words w and y are 
consonants, and in which they are vowels : 

Fellow, carry, winter, young, silly, scythe, new, sowing, mow, 
mowing, glory, cow, swim, dye, sky. 

Questions.— Into what two classes are letters divided? What letters are 
vowels ? What letters are consonants ? 

(3) 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

GENERAL RULES FOR SPELLING. 
i. 
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending with a single consonant preceded 
by a single vowel, double that consonant when an 
addition beginning with a vowel is made ; as, blot, 
blotting ; drop, dropped; allot, alotting. 

The word blot is a monosyllable, or word of one syl- 
lable, ending with a single consonant (#), preceded by a 
single vowel (o) ; ing, a termination beginning with a 
vowel (T), is added.; consequently the consonant (t) 
must be doubled, and the word formed is blotting, not 
bloting. 

Allot is a word of two syllables, accented on the last 
syllable. 

Note. — X is a double consonant, equivalent to ks, 
and is, consequently, not doubled; thus, vex, vexing, 
not vexxing. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Add ed and ing to each of the following words, 
and spell the words that are formed : 

Pat, drop, spot, sip, drip, defer, remit, omit, refer, overlap, flit, 
whip, spur, mar, mat, mob, mop, nap, impel, excel, prefer, permit. 

2. Add er and est to each of the following words, 
and spell the words that are formed : 

Hot, red, big, mad, sad, wet, fat, fit, glad, dim. 

3. Correct the errors in the following : 

Slip, sliped; strip, striped; demur, demuring; annul, annuling; 
flat, flater, flatest; red, reder, redest ; allot, alloting; trip, triping; 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 5 

beg, beging; drag, draged ; step, steped; tan, tarring; fret, freting; 
concur, concuring ; equip, equiping. 

Questions.— What is the first general rule for spelling? Is x doubled? 
Why not? 

II. 

Final e is omitted before terminations begin- 
ning with a vowel; as, save, saving ; wise, wiser ; 
love, loved. 

Save ends with e, and when ing is added the word 
formed is saving, not saveing. If we add er to wise, the 
word formed is wiser, not wiseer. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Add er and est, or ed and ing, to each of the follow- 
ing words, and spell the words that are formed: 

Eipe, wipe, hate, noble, ample, rare, blue, deceive, grieve, 
weave, ripe, strike, spite, transpose. 

2. Correct the errors in the following : 

White, whiteer, whiteest; wise, wiseer, wiseest; wipe, wipeing, 
wipeed ; precede, precedeing, precedeed ; devote, devoteing, de- 
voteed; polite, politeer, politeest; able, ableer, ableest. 

Question.— What is the second general rule? 



III. 

Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
change y into i when a termination is added ; as, 
happy, happier; carry, carried; fly, flies. 

Exception : Before ing, y is retained, that i may 
not be doubled ; as, carry, carrying. 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Add er and est, or ed, to each of the following 
words, and spell the words that are formed : 

Merry, dry, holy, glorify, cry, try, magnify, multiply, decry, 
satisfy, ally. ' 

2. Correct the errors in the following : 

Sanctify, sanctifyed ; dirty, dirtyer, dirtyest ; deny, denyed ; 
rusty, rustyer, rustyest ; defy, defyed. 

Questions. — What is the third general rule ? What exception ? 



istou:n~s 



A noun is the name of an object; as, boy, dog, 
George, Ccesar, Kentucky, London. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the nouns among the following words. 
There are six in each division: 

1. John, James, for, wisel} T , Mary, tell, across, Jane, when, 
"William, comes, Sarah. 

2. Hand, the, an, house, and, quill, school, of, dog, with, good, cat. 

3. Rat, to, pin, stove, or, axe, hoe, nine, ten, horse. 

4. Bird, story, up, off, sun, twenty, moon, went, down, star, in, 
grass. 

5. Broom, over, ran, grass, wheat, corn, bread, eat, meat. 

6. Desk, think, small, apple, brick, shall, river, sell, peach, 
cherry. 

7. Louisville, never, Philadelphia, large, Boston, Nashville, 
sober, the, Albany, declaim, Pittsburg. 

8. Brave, bravery; good, goodness; swift, swiftness ; soft, soft- 
ness; gentle, gentleness ; wicked, wickedness. 



NOUNS. 7 

Note. — When two or more words are employed to 
designate one individual, they are considered as one 
name or noun; as, Robinson Crusoe, William Henry 
Harrison, United States. 

9. George Washington, great, John Quincy Adams, same, too, 
New Orleans, William Wilberforce, Kichard Augustus Murray, 
Sarah Jane Belleville. 

10. Gold, golden ; silver, silvery ; rain, rainy ; mud, muddy ;. 
mischief, mischievous; peace, peaceful. 

11. Dogs hark. A mouse has two ears. The doors and win- 
dows are open. Here is a new book. 

12. Take some apples and pears. Kaisins are sweet. John has 
a new hat and an old cap. 

13. The inkstand is full of ink. The cow has a white calf. 
The carpet is on the floor. 

14. The clock has a new hand. Time passes swiftly. A blot is 
on your paper. Your book is blotted. 

15. Two pints make one quart. Four pecks make one bushel. 
A dollar is equal to one hundred cents. 

16. The distance from Philadelphia to London is very great. 
Three miles, or twenty-four furlongs, make one league. 

17. Beauty will decay. Virtue is happiness. Deception is base. 
Truth is lovely. Avoid impurity. 

18. The lamp gives more light than the candle does. Peter's 
boat is on the water. 

19. The trees are full of leaves. Thomas saw six owls, one 
dove, and a duck. 

20. This lesson is very difficult. Perseverance overcomes diffi- 
culties. The moon and stars are in the sky. 

2. Put a noun in each of the following blank spaces : 
She has a new . knows her lesson. I saw . 

My is better than yours. Your is worth more than 

my . This is a red . The ■ is a beautiful river. 

can jump farther than . is a large city. 

3. See how many you can write of each of the fol- 
lowing : 

1. Names of persons. 2. Names of four-footed animals. 3. 
Names of birds. 4. Names of insects. 5. Names of reptiles. 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Names of fishes. 7. Names of trees. 8. Names of plants. 
9. Names of flowers. 10. Names of meters. 11. Names of objects 
in the house and school-room. 12. Names of civil and military 
officers; as, judge, president, general, etc. 13. Names of qualities ; 
as, virtue, vice, swiftness, strength, dullness, etc. 14. Any other 
names that you can remember. 

Note to Teachers. — It would be well to make the 
pupil point out the nouns in some reading-book, till he 
becomes fully acquainted with the subject. 

Questions. — What is a noun ? When two or more words are employed to 
designate an individual, how are they considered? 

CLASSES OF NOUNS. 

Nouns are divided into two classes — proper 
and common. 

A proper noun is the name of an individual 
object ; as, John, Vesuvius, Louisville, Franklin, 
Mary, George, England. 

Proper nouns always begin with capital letters. 

A common noun is a name applied to all ob- 
jects belonging to the same class; as, hoy, 
mountain, city, girl, country. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the proper and common nouns in the 

following : 

Joseph went to Boston. Many steamboats run on the Hudson 
River from Albany to New York. There are fifty houses in this 
village. This tree bears good apples. Elephants are found in 
Asia and Africa. James saw three squirrels in Montgomery. Job 
was a very patient man. Henry Morton is a fine boy. John took 
George's knife. 



NOUNS. 9 

This is beautiful corn. George Clark is eating an apple under 
that shady tree. On what boat did he go to Liberty ? 

There are many fine plants in that garden. James Wilson is 
the owner. One quart is equal to two pints. Bees are industrious 
insects. How many passengers were on the Pike ? 

Kobertson wrote a History of America. Theophilus is reading 
about Eobinson Crusoe and his man Friday. John Milton was a 
great author. George Washington was a person of noble character. 

Has Mary Jackson seen her cousin Jonas Thornton ? Napoleon 
Bonaparte fought many battles, and died on the Island of St. 
Helena. Mars and Jupiter are names of planets. 

Scipio defeated Hannibal. Proper nouns begin with capital 
letters. A noun is the name of an object. How many nouns are 
in this sentence : 

John Gilpin was a citizen 
Of credit and renown? 

Happiness is desired by all men. John likes bread and milk. 
Jane likes apples. The cow likes grass. The horse likes corn, 
and Pompey likes raw meat. 

2. Mention three proper nouns ; — three common. 

3. Put a proper noun in each of the following blank 
spaces : 

The ship arrived at to-day. saw to-day. 

can run fast. is larger than . This boy's name 

is . Where was yesterday ? In the soil is very 

productive. and are both tall. When did do 

this ? is larger than . 

4. Put a common noun in each of the following 
blank spaces : 

He came to my to-day. is better than . Those 

are delicious . There are fifty on that . Those are 

tall . The is covered with . is . Four 

are equal to one . 

5. Put proper nouns in place of the common nouns 
in the following: 

Horses can run faster than oxen. The man saw a boy. The 
girl sings sweetly. Men must die. The mother is happy because 



10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the children are good. The lady reads her book. Did the boy 
feed the dog? 

Questions.— How many classes of nouns ? What is a proper noun ?— a 
common noun? With what do proper nouns always begin? 



NUMBERS. 

Nouns have two numbers — the singular and 
the plural. 

The singular number denotes one object; as, 
chair, tree, ox, box, hat, pen, table. 

The plural number denotes more than one ob- 
ject; as, chairs, trees, oxen, boxes, hats, pens, tables. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the number of each of the following nouns : 
Book, knife, pens, chairs, table, candle, hats, bonnet, handker- 
chief, feet, hands, eye, ears, children, ox, mice, geese, leaves, 
women, boy. 

Jane has a new bonnet, with two fine ribbons. Six men ran 
down the street to catch the runaway horse. In the garden are 
many trees that give a pleasant shade, and bear fine fruits. The 
handle of the spade is made of wood. The meadow is full of sweet 
flowers. The kitten caught three fat mice. 

2. Tell the number of each of the nouns in the pre- 
ceding lessons. 

Formation of the Plural. 

Most nouns form the plural by adding s to the 
singular; as, book, books ; page, pages ; lamp, lamps; 
stove, stoves; apple, apples. 

When the singular ends with a sound which 
can not unite with s, then es is added; as, church, 



NOUNS. 



11 



churches; box, boxes; glass, glasses ; brush, brushes ; 
fox, foxes. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, 
change y into ie, and add s; as, lady, ladies; fly, 
flies ; cry, cries ; berry, berries ; cherry, cherries. 

If the y is preceded by a vowel, it is not 
changed; as, day, days; valley, valleys. 

The following nouns change / and fe into ve, 
and add s: — leaf, calf, self, half, beef, loaf, sheaf, 
shelf, wolf, wharf, thief, elf, wife, knife, life. Thus, 
leaves, calves, knives, etc. 

Other nouns in / and fe are regular; as, fife, 
fifes; grief griefs. 

The following nouns form the plural more 
irregularly : 



Child, . 


. children ; 


Tooth, . 


. . teeth 


Man, 


. men; 


Foot, . 


. . feet; 


"Woman, 


. women ; 


Goose, . 


. . geese 


Ox, . . 


. oxen ; 


Mouse, . 


. . mice 


Louse, . 


. lice; 


Die, . . 


. . dice. 



EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the plural form of each of the following words : 

Handle, stick, book, star, finger, stove, oven, sun, moon, 
monarch, face, place, case. 

Box, fox, miss, wish, lash, loss, ditch, watch, atlas. 

Study, penny, berry, fly, story, cherry, dairy, fairy, entry, 
pony, dandy, lily, pantry, body. 

Day, play, ray, valley, chimney, turkey, essay. 

Calf, sheaf, knife, fife, hoof, beef, leaf, wolf, thief, roof, chief, 
shelf, gulf, self, half, wife, life. 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Form three sentences containing singular nouns ; — 
three containing plural nouns. 

Questions. — How many numbers? What does the singular number 
denote ? — the plural ? What is the regular mode of forming the plural ? 
When is es added ? What is said of nouns ending in y preceded by a con- 
sonant? What is said of nouns ending in y not preceded by a consonant? 
What is said of some nouns in / and fel How do child, man, etc., form the 
plural ? 

GENDER. 

There are four genders — the masculine, the 
feminine, the common, and the neuter. 

Nouns which denote males are of the mas- 
culine gender ; as, man, hoy, lion, William, father, 
uncle. 

Nouns which denote females are of the fem- 
inine gender; as, woman, mother, lioness, Mary, 
girl, aunt. 

Nouns applied to every individual in the 
class, without reference to sex, are of the com- 
mon gender ; as, parent, bird, friend, cousin, 
squirrel, mouse. 

A parent may be either the father or mother; a 
bird may be either the male or female. 

Nouns which denote neither males nor females 
are of the neuter gender; as, tree, paper, book, 
pen, home, table, bench. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name three nouns of the masculine gender; — 
three of the feminine;— three of the common; — three 
of the neuter. 






NOUNS. 13 

2. Tell the gender of each of the following nouns: 

Father, mother, parent, brother, sister, uncle, aunt, cousin, son, 
daughter, child, wife, husband, shoes, hat, sparrow, chair, sisters, 
brothers, animal, queen, tree, apples, river, quadruped, cow, 
bottles, turkey, lady, fire, fowl, goose, sheep, gander, quills, rocks, 
deer, hog. 

Houses, hens, horses, inkstand, caps, sword, musket, princes, 
maid, lamp, lion, lioness, hero, prince, man-servant, emperor, 
mountain, maid-servant. 

The cow gives milk for little boys and girls ; the horse carries 
them on his back. The birds build nests. My friend is ill. 

George lives in Mississippi. In the field were two horses, 
three cows, five hens, and a boy. Where was Eliza going this 
morning with her little brother ? The name of that small boy, 
with black eyes and dark hair, is Thomas. My cousins have 
arrived. The birds are singing. 

3. Tell the gender of each of the nouns in the pre- 
ceding exercises. 

Questions. — How many genders? What nouns are of the masculine 
gender ? — of the feminine ?— of the common ?— of the neuter ? 



PERSON. 

When the speaker mentions his own name, or 
an appellation belonging to him, it is said to be 
of the first person; as, "I, John, saw it;" "I, 
the governor , make this proclamation;" "We, 
men, are sinful." 

EXERCISES. 



Which of the following nouns are of the first 
person ? 

I, George Washington, proclaim. The thief was tried before 
me, the judge of this court. I, Jonas Barrington, saw the boy. 
We, girls, must study. I, the prophet, foretold this event. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . 

When, in an address, we mention the name of 
the person addressed, or any appellation belong- 
ing to him, it is said to be of the second person; 
as, "Theodore, give me my knife;" "Children, 
obey your parents." 

EXERCISES. 

"Which of the following nouns are of the second 
person ? 

My friend, you are welcome. Boys, let us play. You, Jonas 
Barrington, saw him. The letter was directed to you, Frank 
Appleton. Samuel Winkley, will you come ? You will fall, James. 

When an object is spoken of, the noun is of 
the third person; as, "John saw it;" "Men are 
sinful;" "Theodore gave me my knife." 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the person of each of the following nouns : 

I, Darius, make a decree. Darius, make a decree. Darius 
made a decree. William, where have you been? Where has 
William been ? Sarah, go to Thomas. Sarah went to you, 
Thomas. I, the governor, proclaim. We, boys, are noisy. You, 
girls, are busy. The boys are noisy. The girls are busy. John, 
sit on a chair. John is sitting on a chair. 

Questions. — When is a noun of the first person?— of the second?— of 
the third? 



ADJECTIVES. 15 



ADJECTIVES. 

An adjective is a word which qualifies or limits 
the meaning of a noun; as, "a good boy;" "a 
sweet apple;" "owe book;" "this man." 

A qualifying adjective expresses some quality 
which belongs to the object; as, "bad roads;" 
"ripe nuts;" "violent storms;" "square wooden 
boxes." 

A limiting adjective does not express any qual- 
ity belonging to the object, but merely limits the 
meaning of the noun; as, "one book;" "the 
first man ; " " that thing ; " "forty thieves ; " 
" those two hats." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following words are adjectives, 
and to what nouns they belong. There are twelve in 
each division: 

1. New books. Good scholars. Fine horses. That tree. That 
tall man. Those grapes. Those sour grapes. Two bad pens. 
Six hats. 

2. John is a good boy. Have you studied that long lesson? 
Men love warm fires on cold days. Here are five little girls. 
Every man has some fault. No man should do such actions. Love 
all men. 

3. Did you see any person ? That beautiful river with green 
banks. I will give you this large, red, mellow, sweet apple. Little 
kittens love sweet, new milk. 

2. Join an adjective to each of the following nouns : 

Table, chair, hat, cap, book, pen, hand, knife, hair, boy, girl, 

cow, horse, bullets, box, cat, shoe, birds, sun, moon, stars, apple, 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

pear, peach, men, road, street, fire, house, car, rock, bed, boat, 
mouse, stove, kitten, store, barrel, sugar. 

3. Join a noun to each of the following adjectives : 

Good, bad, fair, our, this, that, happy, every, rich, high, low, 
tall, ripe, sour, sweet, green, long-handed, weak, red. 

4. Join three qualifying adjectives to each of the 
following nouns : 

Tree, wall, jug, trunk, fly, coat, paper, flower, river, desk, day, 
grass, window, picture, music, stream, leaf. 

5. Join three limiting adjectives to each of the fol- 
lowing nouns : 

Houses, fire, rose, lily, scratches, wounds, carpet, curtain, whip, 
pencils, gardens, wasps, board. 

6. See how many adjectives you can write. 

The following words are limiting adjectives : a or an, 
the, this, that, these, those, both, each, every, either, neither, 
some, other, any, one, all, such, none, much, same, few; 
and those words which are used in counting and num- 
bering ; as, one, two, three, four, etc. ; first, second, third, 
fourth, etc. 

Questions. — What is an adjective?— a qualifying adjective? — a limiting 
adjective ? 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

There are three degrees of comparison — the 
positive, the comparative, and the superlative ; as, 
bold, bolder, boldest ; cold, colder, coldest. 

The positive degree is the simple form of the 
adjective ; as, sweet, wise, red, happy. 

The comparative degree is regularly formed 



ADJECTIVES. 17 

by adding er, and the superlative by adding est, 
to the positive ; as, 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE. SUPERLATIVE. 

Sweet, sweeter, sweetest; 

Wise, wiser, wisest ; 

Ked, redder, reddest ; 

Happy, happier, happiest. 

[See General Rules for Spelling.) 

Some adjectives are compared in an irregular 
manner; as, 

POSITIVE. COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE. 

Good, better, best; 

Bad, worse, worst ; 

Little, less, ...... least; 

Much, more, most ; 

Many, more, most ; 

Par, farther, farthest. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the comparative and superlative of each of 
the following adjectives : 

Warm, flat, red, big, good, true, fine, bad, large, green, pale, 
hard, little, much, heavy, light. 

2. In what degree is each of the following adjectives? 

Blchest, paler, good, politest, merrier, greater, quicker, coldest, 
swifter, strong, shortest, safer, weakest, smoother, rougher. 

3. Tell the other degrees of each of the preceding 
adjectives. 

4. Tell the degree of comparison of each of the 
adjectives in the following sentences, and to what 
noun it belongs : 

Caesar was a great warrior. Honesty is the best policy. Trees 
are taller than men. Monday was a warmer day than Tuesday. 

2 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Friday was the hottest day of the week. I got the ripest apple 
that was on the large tree. That brilliant light is painful to weak 
eyes. I never saw a taller man. He is the tallest man I know. 
That man wears a ragged coat because he can not buy a better coat. 
He has the blackest sheep. Take the shortest road. This is a 
shorter, but a muddier road. His knife is the rustiest of any. 
The cheapest marbles are sold here. 

Many adjectives may be compared by prefix- 
ing the adverbs more and most ; as, sweet, more 
sweet, most sweet. 

This is the usual way of comparing adjectives 
of more than one syllable ; as, 



POSITIVE. 


COMPARATIVE. 


SUPERLATIVE. 


Beautiful, . 


. more beautiful, . 


. most beautiful ; 


Useful, . . 


. more useful, . . 


. most useful ; 


Ragged, . . 


. more ragged, . . 
EXERCISES. 


. most ragged. 



Compare the following adjectives : 

Benevolent, courageous, sensible, candid, peaceable, quarrel- 
some, temperate, intelligent. 

Healthful, studious, diligent, attentive, useful, delightful. 

Questions. — How many degrees of comparison? What is the positive 
degree? How are the comparative and superlative formed? Compare 
good, etc. What is the usual way of comparing adjectives of more than 
one syllable ? 



AKTIOLES. 

The limiting adjectives a or an and the are 
called articles. 

The is called the definite, and a or an the 
indefinite article. 



ARTICLES. 19 

A is used before words beginning with con- 
sonant sounds ; as, a tree, a dog. 

An before those beginning with vowel sounds; 
as, an egg, an apple. 

In some words beginning with h this letter is 
"silent ; and the first sound being a vowel sound, 
an is used, and not a ; as, an hour, an herb. 

The articles a and an are used before nouns 
in the singular number only. 

Thus we say, a boy, an apple, both of which nouns 
are in the singular number; but we can not say a boys, 
an apples, a books, etc. 

The article the is used before nouns of either 
the singular or the plural number. 

Thus we say, the boy, or the boys; the apple, or the 
apples ; the book, or the books. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which of the following words are articles, 
and to what nouns they belong : 

A tree. A horse. An hour. An apple. A box. Where is 
the slate? Did you see the elephant? A foolish child. An 
honest man. I want the book that you had. An ox. 

2. Tell why a is used before some of the preceding 
words, and an before others. 

3. Correct the errors in the following : 

A acorn. An pea. An hand. A hour. An hypocrite. An 
tree. A onion. A ox. An man A account. An pen. A apron. 



Questions. — What words are called articles? Which is the definite 
article? — the indefinite? When is a used? When is an used? Why is an 
used before hour? With what number is o or an used?— ttie? 



20 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PEEPOSITIONS. 



A preposition is a word which shows the re- 
lation between a noun or pronoun and some other 
word ; as, " The hatred of vice ;" " This book will 
be useful to John ;" " He lives for glory ;" " He 
acts consistently with his principles." 

Here of shows the relation between vice and hatred; 
to, between John and useful; for, between glory and 
lives ; with, between principles and consistently. 

The preposition and the noun form an adjunct; 
thus of vice is an adjunct to hatred; to John is an 
adjunct to useful; for glory to lives; with his 
principles to consistently. 

The words that modify the noun are considered as 
belonging to the adjunct. In this sentence, "He lives 
in the greatest seclusion" the words in Italics form an 
adjunct to lives. 



LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Aboard, 
About, 


Among, 
Amongst, 


} 


Besides, 
Between, 


For, 
From, 


Above, 


Around, 




Betwixt, 


In, Into, 


According to, 
Across, 


At, 
Athwart, 




Beyond, 

By, 


Notwithstandin 
Of, 


After, 


Before 




Concerning, 


Off, 


Against, 
Along, 
Amid, "» 
Amidst, J 


Behind, 

Below, 

Beneath, 

Beside, 




Down, 
During, 

Except, 
Excepting, 


On, 

Out of, 
Over, 
Past, 



PREPOSITIONS. 21 



Regarding, 


Throughout, 


Towards, 


Up, 


Respecting, 


Till, 


Under, 


Upon, 


Round, 


To, 


Underneath, 


With, 


Since, 


Touching, 


Until, 


Within, 


Through, 


Toward, 


Unto, 


Without. 




EXERCISES. 





1. Insert an appropriate preposition in each of the 
following sentences : 

He went Albany. He died glory. He came me. 

The deer ran the thicket. He spoke the war. He sat 

me. The squirrel ran the tree. She took an apple 

the basket. He is respected home. He fell the river. 

He would have lived this time. James stood the ground. 

He fell the stairs. The sky is us. She is buried 

the sod. She lived the Indians. 

2. Between what words does each of the following 
prepositions show a relation ? 

He went from Albany. He went to Buffalo. He went from 
Albany to Buffalo. He came to me. That is pleasant to her. 
Run before me. I went with the boys. I went into the orchard. 
I went with the boys into the orchard. The stream runs with 
rapidity. The stream runs past the house. The stream runs under 
the fence. The stream runs into the river. The stream runs with 
rapidity past the house, under the fence, into the river. John rode 
to town on the horse. James is kind to his companions. The deer 
jumped over the fence into the field. He is respected at home. 
At home he is respected. In what place does he reside ? To what 
country has he removed ? In that place he was unhappy. John is 
excelled by Peter. Through the gate he went. The boat ran upon 
a snag. He fell over the log. He jumped from the tree. The bird 
flew into the thicket. He was detected in the act. Jonathan is 
anxious to remove from the city to the country. The apple was 
pleasant to the sight. Pew men live to old age. He is ardent in 
the cause of liberty. They fought for freedom. Through Louis- 
ville he proceeded to St. Louis. 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Form a sentence for each of the following prepo- 
sitions : 

From, to, through, by, over, under, among, about, at, before, 
in, on, down, around, after, across, till, up, along. 

Questions.— What is a preposition? What do the preposition and the 
noun form? What is said of the words that modify the noun? 



VERBS. 

A verb is a word by which something is 
affirmed; as, "John runs;' "Csesar was killed;' 
"James will study." 

In sentences generally, we mention the name 
of some person or thing, and then tell what the 
person or thing does, or what is done to it. The 
word that expresses what the person or thing 
does, or what is done to it, is a verb. 

"John writes;" " The letter is written." Here 
writes tells what John does, and is written what is 
done to the letter. These words are verbs. 

That of which something is affirmed is called 
the subject. In the preceding examples, John, 
Ccesar, and James are the subjects. 

The subject may be known by putting wlio or what 
before the verb. 

Thus, in the sentence "James runs," if we ask, ""Who 
runs?" the answer will be "James," and James is con- 
sequently known to be the subject of the verb "runs." 



VERBS. 23 

"The bottle contains ink." To find the subject ask, 
"What contains ink?" The answer is "bottle," and 
bottle is therefore the subject of the verb "contains." 

"Does George play?" Ask, "Does who play?" 
Answer, "George." 

"Did he ride?" Ask, "Did who ride?" Answer, 
"He." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the verbs and subject in the following sen- 
tences : 

James runs. Thomas skates. The bird flies. John sees. 
Samuel rides. Men die. The man teaches. The boys learn. 
George plays. Does George play ? Mary sleeps. The child cries. 
Irene laughs. "William escapes. John sees a bird. William rode 
to town. Birds fly in the air. Caesar conquered Pompey. The 
bottle contains ink. 

The inkstand fell down. The moth burned its wings. The dog 
lost his master. I came yesterday. Ellen can sing a song. George 
shot a bird. Did George shoot a bird? John caught a fish. James 
will read my book. Will James read my book ? He has seen the 
elephant. Has he seen the elephant ? She visited me. John walks 
fast. Does John walk fast ? The sun shines bright. 

James will study his lesson diligently. Joseph has come. 
Joseph has not come. Joseph has not come home. The horse 
gallops through the wood. Thomas loves his sister. The cow eats 
fresh grass. Caesar was killed. That fish was caught hy John. 
Pompey was defeated. The work will be completed. The evil has 
been removed. 

2. What is necessary to complete the sense in the 
following ? 

Benjamin to town. James a letter. Mary a 

horse. Emma ■ the book. The letter by John. Thomas 

down on the bed. The girls their lessons. The boat 

up the river. The deer down the hill. Susan a good 

girl. I a book. He to me. The tree by the wind. 

The storm . Julia diligently. Fannie home. The 

bird its nest. Flowers by the gardener. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. What are those words called which it is necessary 
to supply in the preceding exercises ? 

4. See how many verbs you can write down. 

5. Put verbs instead of the following dashes : 

John a man. The river into the sea. The squirrel 

away. The horse corn. Thomas into the house. 

The dog the cow. She amiable. Home pleasant. 

The stars . The moon light by night. The deer over 

the fence. William to town. I a gazelle. The girl 

on a chair. The earth spherical. God good. We 

here. He away. 

Questions.— What is a verb? What is the subject of a verb? How may 
the subject be known? 

CLASSES OF VERBS. 

A transitive verb requires the addition of an 
object to complete the sense; as, "John strikes 
George;" "He excels me." 

Here George is the object of the verb strikes, and 
me of excels. 

Eemarks. — Any verb that makes sense with me, 
thee, him, her, us, or them, is a transitive verb. 

Thus we may know that strikes is a transitive verb 
by its making sense with him after it; as, "John strikes 
him;" but "John sleeps him" would not make sense. 

When a preposition comes between a verb and a 
noun, the verb is not transitive. The noun is the object 
of the preposition, and not of the verb. 

Thus, "James lies on the bed." Here lies is not a 
transitive verb ; bed is the object of the preposition on, 
and not of the verb lies. 



VERBS. 25 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following verbs are transitive ? 

Mary struck the cow. Jane broke her chair. James lies on 
the bed. He shot the hen. Whales swim in the sea. Thomas 
burned his shoe. The tailor spoiled the coat. The pen fell out of 
his hand. Erasmus wrote a letter. Angelica spoke to her. Amelia 
remained in the house. 

They sailed up the river. The opossum growled at the dog. 
The dog caught the raccoon. Carlo shows his teeth. He sharpens 
knives. The sun has parched the earth. The horse has gone into 
the stable. He has eaten the corn. .Robert looked at me. Samuel 
pushed Alexander off his seat. The boy can wait for me. Smoke 
rises in the air. A tiger will attack a man. 

The serpent crushed the tiger. I will raise him up. The 
peddler sells tin vessels. He stepped into the water. She walked 
in the mud. All men love him. The good man avoids vice. He 
confessed his sin. We played on the grass. Serena tumbled over 
the bench. The mother caresses her babe. 

An intransitive verb does not require the ad- 
dition of an object to complete the sense ; as, 
"The horse runs" " Peter sleeps; "Mary is good." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell which verbs are transitive and which intran- 
sitive in the following sentences ; and name the subject 
of each verb and object of each of the transitive verbs : 

The oxen draw the wagon. Theodore whips his top. Benjamin 
ran into the house. The dog sleeps quietly. The horse kicked the 
cow. Cain killed Abel. William runs fast. The moon shines 
bright. The squirrel eats corn. The squirrel is on the tree. The 
dog caught the squirrel. 

He found me. Walter is strong. I have a book. Augustus 
heard the noise. Lucinda smiles sweetly. She looked at me. The 
cow destroyed the corn. I met him. You avoided me. The ship 
sails well. Joseph left Ellen. I had a pen. He went to town. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

God loves us. Simon came in a coach. That man hates sin. He 
expects a new book. He found a ball. He will wish for a change. 
Mary praises Jane. She abhors meanness. He has gone to heaven. 
Samuel admired the music. I hear a noise. 

2. Form three sentences containing transitive 
verbs ; — three containing intransitive verbs. 

Questions. — What is a transitive verb? How may a transitive verb be 
known?— an intransitive verb? 



CASE. 

Nouns have three cases — the nominative, the 
possessive, and the objective. 

When a noun is the subject of a verb, it is in 
the nominative case; as, "John runs" "The dog 
was killed." 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following nouns are in the nominative 
case? 

Bridges are made across rivers. Wolves destroy sheep. A field 
requires a good fence. John's hat is new. William Tell hit the 
apple. The clouds obscure the sky. The leaves cover the ground. 
Man's life is short. George's horse destroyed the flowers. Stephen's 
pen makes a fine mark. John took William's book. The elephant 
killed the tiger. William has examined John's book. Walter 
lost Edward's marbles. Edgar's hair is red. John wants James's 
chair. Simon touched the elephant's trunk. 

Henry's dog chased the rabbit. Peter's kitten fell from the 
chair. The bird sits on the bough. Time flies swiftly. Carlo took 
Tray's meat. Trusty barked at the traveler. Lavinia's doll has 
blue eyes. The rabbit's tail is white. The dog held the meat in 
his mouth. Joseph wishes to see Jane's picture. Andrew has an 
apple. Frank shook the tree. The traveler's trunk is heavy. 
Eliza found Emma's comb. 



CASE. 27 

When a noun denotes the relation of property 
or possession, it is in the possessive case ; as, 
"Johns hat;" "The dogs food." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Which of the nouns in the preceding exercises 
are in the possessive case? Name six nouns in the 
possessive case. 

The possessive case in the singular number 
is usually formed by adding s preceded by an 
apostrophe ( ' ) to the nominative ; as, William, 
Williams; boy, boys. 

When the nominative plural ends in s, the 
possessive plural is formed by adding the apos- 
trophe only ; as, boys, boys'. 

When plural nouns do not end in s, they form 
their possessive by taking both the apostrophe 
and s; as, men, mens. 

2. Write or spell the possessive case of each of the 
following nouns: 

Man, boy, girl, woman, men, boys, girls, John, Jane, Albert, 
lion, fox, ladies, master, masters, oxen, chair. 

When a noun is the object of a transitive verb 
or of a preposition, it is in the objective case; as, 
"John struck William;' "Thomas jumped over 
the log." 

Here William is the object of the verb struck, and 
log of the preposition over; they are, then, in the 
objective case. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The object may generally be known by its forming 
the answer to the question made by putting whom or 
what after the verb or preposition. Thus, "John struck 
whomf Answer, "William." " Thomas jumped over 
what?" Answer, "The log." 

"Which of the nouns in the exercise on page 25 are 
in the objective case? 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell in what case each of the following nouns is, 
and why : 

Philip studies. Julia plays. The music charms. James runs 
fast. Winter comes on. Summer has fled. George went to town. 
Rain falls from the clouds. The traveler visited the cave. The 
children are in the house. The vessel sails over the sea. 

William's hat hangs on the peg. George's book fell into the 
water. John used Mary's pen. The ball flew over the house. 
The snake bit the dog's foot. Thomas jumped over Amos's chair. 
John threw a stone. The clerk will read the book. 

Anne cut an apple. Peter has Samuel's coat. The hurricane 
destroyed the house. The frost injured the corn. The wolf saw a 
dog. The cat scratched the raccoon's face. The monkey pulled 
John's hair. The bear tore Peter's coat. The elephant has a 
proboscis. The candle is in the candlestick. The leaves of the 
book are dirty. All the windows in the house are open. The 
bees drove the drone from the hive. 

2. Form three sentences containing nouns in the 
objective case. 



& 



Questions.— How many cases? When is a noun in fche nominative case? 
When is a noun in the possessive case? How is the possessive case formed 
in the singular ?— in the plural ? When is a noun in the objective case ? How 
may the object be generally known ? 



PRONOUNS. 



29 



DECLENSION. 

Declension is the regular arrangement of a 
noun according to its numbers and cases. 



SINGULAR. 

No?n. Boy, 
Pos. boy's, 
Obj. boy ; 



EXAMPLES. 
1. Boy. 2. Man. 

PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. boys, Nom. Man, Nom. men, 

Pos. boys', Pos. man's, Pos. men*; 

Obj. boys. Obj. man ; Obj. men. 



SINGULAR. 

Nom. Lady, 
Pos. lady's 
Obj. lady ; 



Lady. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. ladies, 
Pos. ladies' 
Obj. ladies. 



4. Box. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. Box, iVbra. boxes, 

Pos. box's, Pos. boxes', 
Obj. box; O&j. boxes. 



EXERCISES. 



Decline the following nouns 



ey 



Girl, elephant, ox, tiirl? 
George, John. 

Question.— What is declension? 



r , governor, Robert, Thomas, 



PBcmouisrs 



A pronoun is a word which is used instead of 
a noun. 

Illustration. — John went to see Jane, and John 
asked Jane if Jane would not come to John's father's 
house, and bring Jane's brother to see John. 

John went to see Jane, and he asked her if she would 
not come to his father's house, and bring her brother 
to see him. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES. 

1. In the following sentences, instead of the pro- 
nouns, put the nouns- for which they stand: 

James brought his book, and gave it to Mary, and she read it. 
She was much pleased with it, and thanked her brother for having 
lent it to her. 

Thomas is a good boy ; he obeys his father and mother cheer- 
fully when they wish him to do any thing for them. 

2. In the following, put pronouns where they can 
be used instead of nouns : 

James studies well ; James learns fast, and James will excel. 

George found the squirrel lying under a tree, with the squirrel's 
leg broken. George took the squirrel home, and the squirrel's leg 
soon got well. The squirrel loved George, and followed George 
wherever George went. 

Note. — The pronoun I is equivalent to "the 
speaker," and thou or you to "the person addressed." 

3. Put pronouns where they are admissible in the 
following sentences : 

The speaker will love the person addressed. If the person 
addressed should command, the speaker will obey. The person 
addressed did as well as the speaker could do. 

4. Instead of the pronouns in the following sen- 
tences, use their equivalents: 

I wished you to do well. You said you loved me. How shall 
I believe you? 

Questions.— What is a pronoun ? 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The pronouns i", thou, he, she, and it, in their 
various cases and numbers, are called personal 
pronouns ; because / is always of the first 



PRONOUNS. 31 

person, thou of the second, and he, she, and it 
of the third. 

They are thus declined : 

FIRST PERSON. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nom. I, Nom. We, 

Pos. my, or mine, Pos. our, or ours, 

Obj. me; Ooj. us. 

SECOND PERSON. 
Nom. Thou, Nom. Ye, or you, 

Pos. thy, or thine, Pos. your, or yours, 

Obj. thee ; Ooj. you. 

THIRD PERSON (Masculine). 
Nom. He, Nom. They, 

Pos. his, Pos. their, or theirs, 

06j. him ; Obj. them. 

THIRD PERSON (Feminine). 
Nom. She, iVbra. They, 

Pos. her, or hers, Pos. their, or theirs, 

06j. her ; Obj. them. 

THIRD PERSON (Neuter). 
Nom. It, iVora. They, 

Pos. its, Pos. their, or theirs, 

Obj. it; 06j. them. 

Note. — The plural form, you, is now commonly used 
instead of thou. 

When self (plural, selves) is added to the personal 
pronouns, they are called compound personal pronouns. 

They have no possessive case, and the objective is 
the same as the nominative. 

They are myself, ourselves; thyself, yourselves; him- 
self, herself, itself, themselves. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — Yourself is how commonly used instead of 

thyself. 

Questions.— What words are called personal pronouns? Why? De- 
cline I, etc. What are compound personal pronouns? How many cases 
have they ? Name the compound personal pronouns. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Who, which, tvhat, and that, are called relative 
pronouns when they relate to some word or 
phrase going before, called the antecedent;* as, 
"The boy who studies will learn;" "The hat 
which I wore." 

In these sentences, who relates to boy as its ante- 
cedent, and which to hat. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the relatives and antecedents in the following: 
sentences : 

The girl who is industrious will improve. This is the chair in 
which I sit. I lost the knife which John gave me. This is the 
man who met us. That is the lady who helps the poor. Our 
Father who art in heaven. Our parents, who have done so much 
for us, should be honored. Those who seek shall find. I am the 
man who commands you. I who command you am the man. 
I saw Edward, who was much hurt. Thomas was in the house 
which was burned. 

Who is applied to persons; as, "This is the 
man who came;" "She who is amiable will be 
loved." 

Which is applied to the lower animals and 
to inanimate things ; as, " This is the ox which 

'■'■ Antecedent moans yoiny before. 



PRONOUNS. 33 

destroyed the corn;" "This is the tree which 
bears the best fruit." 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the errors in the following : 

This is the man which came. This is the ox who destroyed the 
corn. This is the tree who bears the best fruit. She which is 
amiable will be loved. This is the bench who fell over. John is 
the boy which did it. I see the dog who bit him. This is the 
apple who was cut. I went with John, which is a bad boy. She 
has studied the lesson who was so hard. 

That is applied to any thing to which either 
who or ivhich may be applied; as, "This is the 
man that came ;" " She that is amiable will be 
loved;" "This is the ox that destroyed the 
corn ;" " This is the tree that bears the best 
fruit." 

That is a relative when who, which, or whom 
may be used for it. 

Thus, "He that studies will learn;" "The lesson that 
Mary learned is useful;" "This is the man that I saw." 
Who may be used for that in the first example, which 
in the second, aud whom in the third. 

EXERCISES. 

In which of the following sentences is that a relative ? 

He that does no good does harm. All respect the person that 
tells the truth. Give me that book. All that sin will suffer. Do 
you like the book that I sent you ? That cherry is ripe. I saw the 
dog that bit him. That is the chair that was broken. That is the 
man that I met. John has the pen that you made. This is the 
fruit that you like. He says that that is the fruit that you like. 
I believe that he studies. This is the lesson that he studies. Drive 

3 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that horse away. He says that the horse is gone. This is the 
horse that threw down the gate. 

What and that are used only in the nominative and 
objective cases. 

Who and which are thus declined : 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Nom. Who, Nom. Which, 

Pos. whose, Pos. whose, 

Obj. whom. Obj. which. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the relatives and antecedents in the following 
sentences : 

This is the person who owns this house. I know the lady whom 
we met. The book that I read is very interesting. John has a 
dog that goes on three legs. William has a cat that fights the 
largest rats. Edward mended the pens which he used. This is 
greater than any thing that he expected. The tree which stands 
in the field is very tall. Csesar, who slew many, was himself slain. 
Birds that swim in the water have webbed feet. The rabbit that I 
saw ran into the bushes. This is the cat which caught the rat. 
God, whose goodness is infinite, should be loved by all men. He 
who steals my purse steals trash. The walnuts that I got are 
excellent. The horse that was lame is well. The paper on which 
I am writing is smooth. The knife that you purchased is dull. 
The lamp which he broke gave a great deal of light. 

Questions.— What words are called relative pronouns? To what is who 
applied?— which?— that? When is that a relative? 

ANTECEDENT OMITTED. 

The antecedent is sometimes omitted; as, 
"Who steals my purse steals trash;" that is, 
he who, or the person who. 

The relative what is never used except when 



PRONOUNS. 85 

the antecedent is omitted; whicli is used when 
the antecedent is expressed. 

If, then, we omit the antecedent, we must 
use what instead of ivhich; and if the antecedent 
is restored to its place, which must follow, and 
not what. 

Thus, "I saw what I wanted to see." Here the 
antecedent to what is thing understood ; if we express 
the antecedent (thing), which will take the place of 
what; as, "I saw the thing which I wanted to see." 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the omitted antecedent to each of the fol- 
lowing relatives : 

Who sees not the sun is blind. I saw whom I wanted to see. 
I saw what I wanted to see. "Whom he hates I love. What he 
hates I love. Who seek truth shall find her. Whom he has once 
seen he knows. What he has once seen he knows. What he learns 
he remembers. John will learn what you wish him to learn. 
Thomas has done what you requested him to do. Whom false- 
hood pleases truth offends. 

2. Express the antecedents in the following sen- 
tences, and make the necessary changes: 

I saw what I wanted to see. He got what he desired. What 
pleases me pleases him. What he attempts he performs. Thomas 
delights in what is good. You will be improved by what you 
learn. He undertakes only what he can accomplish. Mary attends 
to what is said. Ann loves what is true. 

Questions.— Is the antecedent always expressed ? What relative pronoun 
is never used except when the antecedent is omitted ? If the antecedent is 
restored, what pronoun must be used instead of what ? 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
When ever, or soever, is annexed to relative 
pronouns, the words thus formed are called com- 
pound relative pronouns; as, whoever, whosoever. 

These are used only when the antecedent is omitted 
on account of its being indefinite; and in such cases 
they are more commonly used than the simple pro- 
nouns. 

Thus, " Whoever steals my purse steals trash;" 
11 Whatever purifies fortifies the heart." In the first 
example, the antecedent is person, or something equiv- 
alent; in the second, it is thing. 

EXERCISES. 

Name the omitted antecedent to each of the follow- 
ing relatives : 

Whoever studies will learn. He wants whatever he sees. He 
gave assistance to whoever had need of it. He took whatever he 
wanted. Whatever is black is not white. Whoever loves sin 
hates life. He avoids whatever is impure. Whosoever wanders 
from virtue forsakes the chief good. I dislike whatever is sour. 
Whoever rules himself is greater than Alexander. Whatsoever 
is right is useful. 

Questions. — What are compound relative pronouns ? How are they used ? 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Who, when used in asking a question, is 
equivalent to ivhat person, and is called an in- 
terrogative pronoun. 

Thus, " Who is here ?" This is equivalent to 
u What person is here?" "Whom did they see?" 



PRONOUNS. 37 

that is, "What person did they see?" "Whose 
horse is this ?" that is,' " What persons horse is 
this ?" 

Eemarks. — Which and what, when used in ques- 
tions, are not pronouns, but limiting adjectives, be- 
longing to nouns, expressed or understood. 

Thus, " Which book will you have?" "What man 
do you see ?" " Which will you have ?" "What do you 
see?" that is, "What thing do you see?" 

EXERCISES. 

1. In which of the following sentences is who an 
interrogative pronoun ? 

Who did this ? This is the man who did it. Whom did you 
see? This is the person whom I saw. I saw the girl who has 
the book. Who spoke to me ? . John visited the man who is sick. 
I know the lady whom you saw. Whose book is this ? This is 
the man whose dog was killed. Whom does she imitate ? Whose 
horse ran up the hill. 

2. In which of the following sentences are which 
and what limiting adjectives? 

What book are you reading ? He got what he wished. Which 
shoe did you lose ? What did you find ? He found the knife which 
you lost. Which pen do you prefer ? What did you say ? I have 
the pen which you prefer ? Which boy climbed the tree ? The 
cat which climbed the tree. What did Jane learn ? What person 
did he meet? Which lady spoke? Which limb fell from the 
tree ? This is the limb which fell from the tree ? 

3. Form three sentences containing personal pro- 
nouns ; — three containing compound personal pro- 
nouns; — three containing relative pronouns; — three 
containing interrogative pronouns. 

Questions. — When is who called an interrogative pronoun? To what is 
who equivalent? What are which and what when used in questions? 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ADYEEBS, 



An adverb is a word used to modify or limit 
the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or another 
adverb; as, "He acts cautiously ;" "He is remark- 
ably cautious;" "He acts more cautiously." 

An adverb is an abridged expression for an adjunct; 
thus, cautiously means in a cautious manner; remarkably 
means in a remarkable degree; and more means in a 
greater degree. So here is equivalent to in this place; 
then, to at that time, etc. 

The following list contains the adverbs that occur 
in the following exercises, with the equivalent adjuncts : 



ADVERBS. 






EQUIVALENT ADJUNCTS. 




Afterward, .... after that time. 




Again, 






. . at another time. 




Always, . 






. at all times. 




Backward, 






. toward the back. 




Better, 






. in a better manner. 




Carefully, 






. in a careful manner, with care. 




Cheerfully, 






. in a cheerful manner. 




Completely, 






. in a complete degree. 




Diligently, 






. in a diligent manner. 




Early, . 






. at an early time. 




Enough, . 






. in a sufficient degree. 




Fashionably, 






. in a fashionable manner. 




First, . . 






. in the first place, before any thing 


else 


Formerly, 






. in former times. 




Gloriously, 






. in a glorious manner. 




Happily, . 






. in a happy manner. 




Henceforth, 






. from this time. 




Here, . . 






. in this place. 




Hitherto, . 






. to this time. 




How, . . 






. in what manner, in what degree. 




Infinitely, 






in an infinite degree, without limit. 





ADVERBS. 39 

ADVERBS. EQUIVALENT ADJUNCTS. 

Justly, in a just manner, with justice. 

Kindly, in a kind manner. 

Lazily, in a lazy manner. 

More, to a greater degree. 

Most, in the greatest degree. 

Never, at no time. 

Nobly, in a noble manner. 

Noiselessly, in a noiseless manner, without noise. 

Now, at this time. 

Often, at many times. 

Openly, in an open manner. 

Plainly, in a plain manner. 

Quietty, in a quiet manner. 

Eapidiy, in a rapid manner, with rapidity. 

Seldom, at few times. 

Severely, in a severe manner, with severity. 

Softly, in a soft manner. 

Somewhere, in some place. 

Sweetly, in a sweet manner. 

Then, at that time. 

There, in that place. 

Twice, at two times. 

Uncommonly, .... to an uncommon degree. 

Unusually, to an unusual degree. 

Usefully, in a useful manner, to advantage. 

Very, in a great degree. 

Violently, in a violent manner, with violence. 

Well, in a proper manner. 

When, at what time. 

Where, in what place. 

Yonder, at that place (within view). 

Zealously, in a zealous manner, with zeal. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Name the adverbs in the following sentences ; — 
tell for what adjuncts the adverbs stand, and what 
words they modify : 

Edward will remain there. George studies his lesson diligently. 

He is verv studious. Martha behaves well. The cat moves noise- 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

lessly. The dog barks furiously. It is unusually good. They will 
go now. He should be more consistent. You should tread more 
softly. She is most diligent. We are usefully employed. Your 
book is here. They saw him then. I acted better afterward. 
Where is Fido? When did he go? Serena acted nobly. John 
Howard was an uncommonly benevolent man. 

I will first speak, and then act. He never did a foolish thing. 
She is always happy. God is infinitely wise. Henceforth I will 
carefully avoid the danger. Amelia comes often. George spoke 
to her kindly and carefully. He climbed the tree twice. She will 
come again. Edwin rises early. I do not know where he resides. 
The good boy is seldom idle. The deer runs rapidly. The torrent 
runs furiously and violently. How was it done ? 

2. Form sentences containing the following adverbs, 
and tell what words they modify : 

Justly, happily, diligently, quietly, sweetly, wisely, gloriously, 
fashionably. 

Enough, sufficiently, completely, severely, perfectly. 

Here, then, zealously, where, somewhere, yonder. 

Now, when, formerly, plainly, hitherto, backward, lazily, openly. 

3. Put an adverb in each of the following sentences: 

She studies. He labors. John writes. Peter came. We are 
happy. The weather is cold. Will you speak ? She is candid. 
The house was consumed. The bells rang. Did you do it ? The 
book is written. It is printed. Eveline was disappointed. He 
dashed it against a rock. The hall was lighted. He went to bed. 

A few adverbs are compared by adding er and 
est ; as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oftenest; 
fast, faster, fastest. 

The following are irregularly compared : bad or ill, 
worse, worst; far, farther, farthest; little, less, least; 
much, more, most; well, better, best. 

Questions. — What is an adverb? For what is an adverb an abridged 
expression? How are adverbs compared? Compare bad, etc. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 41 



CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction is a word which connects words 
or propositions ; as, "John and James are happy, 
because they are good." 

Here and connects the words "John" and "James," 
and because connects the propositions or clauses "John 
and James are happy" and "they are good." 

The principal conjunctions are : and, both, as, because, 
for, if, since, that, or, either, nor, neither, than, though, yet, 
but, except, whether, lest, unless, notwithstanding. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the conjunctions in the following: 

Edgar and Alfred are at home. Julius or Marcus may read. 
Eomeo and Angelo have come. The boy and the girl went away. 
Henry or Cuthbert wrote the letter. Gold and iron are metals. It 
was destroyed by fire and water. Apples and peaches are delicious. 
Sophronia is diligent and amiable. Jane is good and happy. You 
or I must. He and she are not alike. 

He laughs and cries. She wept and was comforted. They 
danced and sung. Mary is loved and respected. He saw and 
conquered. I will go and return immediately. You may go or 
stay. You should go out or stay in. Go and do likewise. Be 
diligently and usefully employed. He acted cautiously and delib- 
erately. She wishes to see and be seen. 

I come, and you go. He is happy, and he is good. He is 
happy, because he is good. Because he is good, he is happy. He 
is happy, for he is good. He is happy since he is good. He is 
happy, if he is good. If he is good, he is happy. He is not happy, 
though he is rich. Though he is rich, he is not happy. You must 
labor, if you would succeed. If you would succeed, you must labor. 
He was rich, but he was not happy. He was not happy, notwith- 
standing he was rich. He was rich, yet he was not happy. Climb 
not, lest you fall. He was not rich, nor was he happy. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Put a conjunction in the place of each of the 
following dashes : 

John William are in the country. He can not come to- 
day, lie is sick. I will treat him well, he has injured me. 

Tell me you will stay. I am sure he will go. You will 

be punished you repent. He is poor, he is happy. John 

will be pleased you come. He is afraid he will not see 

the boat. I will not go mother is unwilling. The sun can 

not shine, it is cloudy. You she may go, he must 

stay. George is better James. 

3. Form sentences, each containing one or more of 
the following conjunctions : 

And, but, if, though, or, than, lest, whether, that, because, for, 
neither. 

Questions. — What is a conjunction? Name the principal conjunctions. 



INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection is a word used in exclamation, 
to express some strong or sudden emotion; as, 
u 0l what a severe blow!" "Away, away with 
him !" "Huzza for liberty !" 

The following are some of the principal interjec- 
tions : Ah! alas ! oh ! ha ! ! fudge ! tush I pshaw I poh ! 
fie! avaunt! holla! aha! huzza! hurrah! welcome! hail! 
ho ! hush ! hist ! heigho ! heyday ! bravo ! adieu ! well ! ahoy I 

EXERCISES. 

1. Tell the interjections in the following: 

Alas ! the faithful dog is killed ! Holla ! John, what are you 
doing with my book? Welcome, my friend, to this peaceful home ! 
Hush ! do not disturb the baby ! Poh ! I do not mind such a trifle ! 



VOICES OF VERBS. 43 

Bravo ! bravo ! do not be afraid ! Ship, aboy ! where are you from ? 
Hurrah ! the victory is won. Heyday ! what is the matter ? 

2. Put interjections in the place of each of the fol- 
lowing dashes : 

He is gone, and how wretched I am ! , my friends, 

how miserable must that man be ! deliverer of thy country ! 

He died, in early youth. my friends. my foes. 

what nonsense ! we have a holiday ! 

3. Form sentences, each containing one of the fol- 
lowing interjections : 

Ah ! alas ! oh ! pshaw ! hail !. hurrah ! bravo ! 



Questions. — What is an interjection? Name some of the principal 
interjections ? 



VOICES OF VERBS. 

Transitive verbs have two forms, called the 
active and passive voices. 

When the active voice is used, the subject is 
represented as acting ; as, "Brutus killed Caesar;" 
"Jane sifts meal;" "He will cut the wood." 

When the passive voice is used, the subject 
is represented as being acted upon; as, "Caesar 
was killed by Brutus ;" "Meal is sifted by Jane;" 
" The wood will be cut by him." 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following verbs are in the active 
voice ? — which in the passive ? 

Anne cut the thread. George split the wood. The thread was 
cut. The wood was split. The boy read the book. The book 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

was read by the boy. Newspapers are read. Good children love 
their parents. Good children are loved by their parents. The 
squirrel eats a nut. The squirrel was shot. John writes. The 
letter is written. Thomas sees us. Thomas is seen by us. We do 
not see Thomas. The fire consumed the house. The fire was 
extinguished by water. The horse kicked the cow. The horse 
was kicked by the cow. The cow kicked the horse. The cow was 
kicked by the horse. Peter scratched the cat, and he was scratched 
by the cat. The horse eats the corn. The corn is eaten. Squirrels 
eat nuts. Nuts are eaten by squirrels. 

In the sentence "Brutus killed Caesar," the subject, 
Brutus, is active; in the sentence, "Caesar was killed 
by Brutus, the subject, Ccesar, is passive. The two 
examples express the same idea. 

Any sentence containing a transitive verb in 
the active form may be so altered as to convey 
the same sense with the verb in the passive form. 

In making the change, that which is the object in 
the active becomes the subject in the passive; and the 
subject of the active is put in the objective case after 
the preposition by. Thus, "The dog bit the cat," may 
be changed into, "The cat was bitten by the dog." 

ACTIVE FORM. PASSIVE FORM. 

Cows eat grass, Grass is eaten by cows. 

The boys broke the glass, . . The glass was broken by the boys. 

Masons will build the wall, . The wall will be built by masons. 

I have seen a lion, .... A lion has been seen by me. 

EXERCISES. 
Change the following sentences so as to convey the 
same meaning with the verb in the passive form : 

John tore the book. My father planted the peach-tree. The 
frost lulled it. The horses will eat the hay. Nero burned Rome. 
James broke my knife. The men cut the grass. Thomas related a 



MOODS. 45 

story. Horace saw Emma. The mowers have cut the grass. The 
peddler will sell goods. Time cuts down every thing. The smith 
had made the shoe. I wrote the letter. The dog chased the fox. 
The elephant struck the tiger. 

Questions. — How many voices have transitive verbs? Define the active 
voice ; — the passive. How may a sentence containing a transitive verb in the 
active form be altered ? In making the change, what is done with the object 
of the active ? What is done with the subject of the active ? 

THE MOODS. 

Moods are different manners of expressing the 
action or state. 

There are commonly reckoned five moods — 
the indicative, the subjunctive, the potential, the 
imperative, and the infinitive. 

The indicative mood simply declares a thing; 
as, "I run;' "John wrote a letter;" "Vice will 
be punished." 

The subjunctive mood represents the action or 
state as doubtful or contingent; as, "He will 
escape punishment, if he repent" 

The subjunctive mood is usually preceded by 
a conjunction ; as, if, that, unless, though, lest. 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following verbs are in the indicative 
and which in the subjunctive mood ? 

Peter jumped. George saw a lion. I will go home. "William 
poured out the sand. If you stay, I will go. This ink is good. 
If the ink is good, I will use it. Go home. Boys will play. Time 
flies. Eollo went home. Lucy saw the duck. He will have 
written the letter before dinner. If you will write a letter, I will 
take it. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

If you are good, you will bo happy. If the ball is lost, we will 
not play. We can read the book, though it is torn. I will not 
lend you my knife. You will not learn, unless you study. The 
horse escaped. Fido barked furiously. Though Fido barked, the 
cat remained in the chair. The fish did not bite, though they were 
hungry. We will not shoot unless we have powder. Orlando took 
my pen, though I wanted it myself. He will bring the nuts home. 
He cut his finger. Be careful, lest you cut your finger. 

The potential mood asserts the power, liberty, 
possibility, necessity, or duty of performing an 
action, or being in a state; as, "I can run; 1 
"You may rest;' "John may learn, perhaps;" 
"He must study." 

The potential mood may be known by the 
signs may, can, must, might, could, woidd, slioidd. 

Both the indicative and the potential may 
be used in asking questions ; as, "Have you a 
knife?" "May he go?" 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following verbs are in the potential 
mood? 

I would write, if you would mend my pen. I should like to 
play. May we go home ? You should study more diligently. 
The dog looks at me. Did John shoot the squirrel ? Has he cut 
his finger? Can you help me to make a fire? Did the horse 
drink some water? The horse wished to eat the corn. My sister 
gave me an apple. The clock should have been wound up. May 
I have an apple ? You must not give up. You must not pull my 
hair. Mary can run fast. Jane can knit gloves. Thomas caught 
an opossum. I would have read it, if you had been willing to 
listen. Can William read? Did William read? Little boy, 
please to walk out of the garden. The birds sing beautifully. 

Can that bird sing? Must I sing? Ellen will sing. A bird 
that can sing, and will not sing, should be made to sing. Sing, 



MOODS. 47 

bird. Must Peter tear his coat? Kun, boys. Can the cow jump 
over the gate? Did the cow jump over the gate? Cow, jump 
over the gate. Has the baby learned to talk ? Baby, talk to us. 
She is anxious to learn. The sheep was sheared. Could the sheep 
swim ? The sheep could have swum, if it had wished. Pull the 
trigger, if you wish to shoot. Could you make a coat, if you had 
some green cloth ? Do you know how to spell ? I hope to see you 
to-morrow. The clock has struck nine. Do you wish the cock to 
crow? 

The imperative mood is used in commanding, 
exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, "Study 
your lesson ;" "Obey your parents ;" "Save my 
child ;" "Go in peace." 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the verbs in the last exercises are in the 
imperative mood? 

The infinitive mood expresses the action or 
state without limiting it to any person or thing 
as its subject; as, "To play is pleasant." 

To, the sign of the infinitive, is sometimes omitted ; 
as, "Let him go;" that is, to go. 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the verbs in the last exercises are in the 
infinitive mood? 

Note to Teachers.— For remarks on the moods, see 
the author's "Practical Grammar." Those who choose 
to adopt the suggestions made in that work may let 
the pupil omit the definitions of the subjunctive and the 
potential moods. The forms usually assigned to the 
subjunctive will then be included in the indicative, or 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in the indicative and infinitive; the "auxiliaries" of 
the potential are in the indicative, and the "principal 
verbs" in the infinitive, with the sign to omitted. 

Thus, "He shall escape punishment, if he repent." 
Here shall is to be supplied before "repent," and the 
verb is in the future indicative. 

EXERCISES. 

In what mood is each of the following verbs ? 

Thomas runs fast. Thomas, run fast. Thomas is able to run 
fast. Thomas can run fast. He will overtake William, if he run 
fast. Go home. I wish to see you. Come soon. You must write. 
He can read. She could work. The fire burns. Does the fire 
burn ? Can the fire burn ? The fire could burn. The fire could 
have burned. The fire should burn, if it intends to keep us warm. 
The rabbit was caught. Was the rabbit caught ? Can the rabbit 
be caught ? The rabbit could be caught. The rabbit should have 
been caught. Eabbit, be caught. Rabbit, do you wish to be 
caught? I have caught you. Fly away, little bird. Should you 
like to fly away? Stay with me, if you choose. Winter has 
come. Will spring come ? Who whistled ? If you can whistle, 
whistle. 

Questions. — What are moods? How many moods? Define the indica- 
tive; — the subjunctive. By what is the subjunctive usually preceded ? Define 
the potential. How may the potential mood be known ? "What moods may be 
used in asking questions ? Define the imperative mood ;— the infinitive. Is 
the sign to always expressed ? 

THE TENSES. 

There are three divisions of time — present, 
past, and future. 

EXERCISES'. 

What division of time is referred to in each of the 

following sentences? 

He rode yesterday. John is now eating. The girl will walk 
to-morrow. John loves James. The water is cold. He despises 



TENSES. 49 

deceit. The river overflowed its banks last spring. I will go home. 
Julius Caesar lived a long while ago. He came from Madison last 
week. The summer has now come. Two boats started yesterday, 
and one will start to-morrow. Great things have been done in this 
century. The corn grows rapidly, and the harvest will soon come. 
I had written a letter before dinner. He will have finished the 
work before evening. 

In each division of time there are two tenses, 
one of which represents the action or state as 
perfect, that is, completed at the time referred to ; 
the other does not represent the action as com- 
pleted at the time referred to. 

Thus we have six tenses, which are named as follows : 

PRESENT TIME. 

1. Present Tense; as, ........ " I write." 

2. Present Perfect Tense ; as, . . . . " I have written." 

PAST TIME. 

3. Past Tense; as, " I wrote." 

4. Past Perfect Tense; as, "I had written." 

FUTURE TIME. 

5. Future Tense; as, " I will write." 

6. Future Perfect Tense; as, . . . . "I will have written." 

These tenses are sometimes called present, perfect, 
imperfect, pluperfect, first future, second future. 

The present tense expresses what takes place 
in present time; as, "I love;" "I am loved;' 
"Jane sees me." 

The present perfect tense represents an action 
or state as perfect or finished at the present 
time ; as, "I have walked to-day ;" " John has 

4 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

studied this week;" "Many good books have 
been written in this country." 

This tense may be known by the signs have, 
has, and hast. 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following verbs are in the present 
tense, and which in the present perfect tense? 

The dog runs. He has caught a mouse. I have told you 
before, and I tell you now. I have read a very amusing book 
this evening. The pigeon flies swiftly. Those pigeons have flown 
a great distance. The ice has melted. The sun has risen. Have 
you done any good to-day ? Bad company has ruined him. How 
beautifully the snow falls I 

The past tense expresses what took place in 
past time ; as, " I wrote a letter yesterday ;" 
"God created the world;" "Caesar was killed 
by Brutus." 

The past perfect tense represents an action 
or state as perfect or finished at some time 
past referred to ; as, " I had written a letter 
when he arrived ;" " The ship had sailed before 
he reached Boston." 

This tense may be known by the signs had 
and hadst. 

EXERCISES. 

Which of the following verbs are in the past tense, 
and which in the past perfect tense? 

The horse broke his bridle yesterday. He had broken three 
before. 1 saw you last week. You had just come from the 



TENSES. 51 

country. Josephine had combed her hair when Eliza saw her. 
The wagon was broken. After it was mended, I rode in it. After 
the sun had risen, the ice melted. James had gone. Thomas 
spoke. I had written. 

The future tense expresses what will take 
place hereafter; as, "Greorge will go to town, 
and I shall see him." 

This tense may be known by the signs shall, 
will, shall, wilt. 

The future perfect tense represents an action 
or state as perfect or finished at some future 
time; as, "I shall have dined at one o'clock." 

This tense may be known by the signs shall 
have, will have, shalt have, wilt have. 

EXERCISES. 

In what tense is each of the following verbs? 

He loves truth. She hates deception. I saw your brother last 
evening. He will return to-morrow. John recited his lesson 
yesterday. I have just recited my lesson. The boys have gone 
home. George had gone before you came. You will see him 
to-morrow. All crime shall cease. I read the book which you 
lent me. I had seen him when you met him. James studies 
diligently. He will have started before ten o'clock. He will have 
come. I shall have come. We shall have run. They will have 
read. 

Questions. — How many divisions of time? How many tenses in each 
division of time? What do they represent ? How are these tenses named? 
Define the present tense ; — the present perfect. How may this tense be known ? 
Define the past tense ; — the past perfect. How may the past perfect tense be 
known? Define the future tense. How may the future tense be known? 
Define the future perfect tense. How may this tense be known ? 



5'2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

NUMBER AND PERSON. 

The number and person of the verb are the 
forms appropriated to the different numbers and 
persons of the subject. 

Thus, in the present tense, with the first person 
singular, we use love; with the second, lovest; and with 
the third, loves; as, "I love, thou lovest, he loves." 

In these eases, love is said to be of the first person 
singular, lovest of the second person singular, and loves 
of the third person singular. 

In the plural all the forms are alike ; as, we love, you 
love, they love. 

EXERCISES. 

Tell the number and person of each of the verbs in 
the preceding exercises. 

Question.— What are the number and person of the verb. 



PAETIOIPLES. 

A participle is a word which expresses an 
action or state like a verb, and belongs to a 
noun like an adjective; as, "I see a man cut- 
ting wood." 

Here cutting denotes an action, is in the active voice, 
and has an object like a transitive verb ; and it belongs 
to the noun man, like an adjective. 



PARTICIPLES. 53 

The imperfect participle implies the continu- 
ance of the action or state ; as, " John is cutting 
wood." 

The perfect participle implies the completion 
of the action or state ; as, "Having cut the 
wood, he made a fire." 

In the former example, the action is represented as 
imperfect or continuing ; in the latter, it is represented 
as perfect or completed. 

Note. — The imperfect participle is sometimes called 
the present participle. 

The imperfect participle of the active voice 
always ends in ing. The perfect participle may 
be known by the sign 



EXERCISES. 

"Which of the following participles are imperfect 
participles, and which perfect? 

John is writing a letter. Having mended my pen, I will write. 
Spring is coming. The moon is shining. The horse, having eaten 
the corn, is now eating hay. The cat was mewing. The rat was 
running. I shall he running while you are walking. Having torn 
my coat, I must stay at home. Having perused that book, I must 
get another. Having crossed the river, he is now walking on the 
other side. The boat having stopped, is now blowing off steam. 

Transitive verbs have, in the passive voice, 
besides the imperfect and perfect participles, a 
third, which is called the passive participle. 

The imperfect participle of the passive voice of 
to write is being written; the perfect, having been writ- 
ten; and the passive participle, written. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Note. — The passive participle added to the various 
parts of the verb to be forms the passive voice. 

The auxiliary perfect participle is a participle 
employed to aid in forming the perfect tenses 
of the active voice. 

It is always joined with have, hast, has, had, 
hadst, shall have, will have, shalt have, or wilt have. 

The auxiliary perfect participle and the pas- 
sive participle are alike in form. 

The imperfect participle of the passive voice may 
be known by the sign being; the perfect by the sign 
having been. In regular verbs, the passive and aux- 
iliary perfect participles end in ed. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Which of the following participles are imperfect 
and which are perfect participles of the passive voice ? 
Which are passive participles, and which are auxiliary 
perfect participles ? 

I have written a letter. The letter is written. Jane is loved. 
Martha is admired. That knife having been lost, I must get 
another. The cat has chased a rat. The rat was chased. He will 
have mended my pen. Martha being admired, Sophronia is sat- 
isfied. My parents being pleased, I am happy. Being reviled, he 
reviled not again. I had completed my writing before yours was 
commenced. I have seen him. Having been defeated, he with- 
drew. The dog having caught a raccoon, we have returned. 

2. Tell which of the following words are participles, 
and to what nouns or pronouns they belong : 

We left Jane studying her lesson. I saw Sarah teaching the 
children. Thomas is dining. Samuel is eating an apple. The 
general died, lamented by all. John, having recited his lesson, 
went home. The sun having set, darkness appears. Virtue being 



CONJUGATION. 55 

lost, all is lost. She is an angel, enchanting all by her presence. 
Having seen him once, I am satisfied. Her book being torn, she 
can not study. Having been requested to remain, he took his seat. 

Questions.— What is a participle ? How many participles has every verb ? 
Define the imperfect participle ; — the perfect. How does the imperfect par- 
ticiple of the active voice end ? How may the perfect participle be known ? 
What other participle have transitive verbs ? What is the auxiliary perfect 
participle ? With what is it always joined ? What two participles are alike in 
form ? How may the imperfect participle of the passive voice be known ? — 
the perfect? How do the passive and auxiliary perfect participles end in 
regular verbs ? 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The conjugation of a verb is the regular ar- 
rangement of its parts according to the voices, 
moods, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

A verb is regular when the past tense and 
the auxiliary perfect participle are formed by 
adding ed to the imperfect infinitive ; as, 



MPERFECT INFINITIVE. 


PAST. 


AUXILIARY PERFECT PARTICIPLE 


To trust, . . . 


. I trusted, 


. . . . trusted. 


To hope, . . . 


. I hoped, 


. . . . hoped. 


To drop, . . . 


. I dropped, 


. . . dropped. 


To carry, . . . 


. I carried, 


. . . . carried. 



A verb is irregular when the past tense or 
auxiliary perfect participle is not formed by the 
addition of ed to the imperfect infinitive; as, 

IMPERFECT INFINITIVE. PAST. AUXILIARY PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

To write, .... I wrote, .... written. 

To do, I did, done. 

To hear, .... I heard, .... heard. 

To say, .... I said, ...... said. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

An auxiliary verb is one that is used in con- 
jugating other verbs. 

The principal parts are the imperfect infinitive, 
the past indicative, and the auxiliary perfect par- 
ticiple. 

When these are known, all the parts of the 
verb may be formed by using the proper ter- 
minations and auxiliaries. 

Questions. — What is conjugation? When is a verb regular? When is a 
verb irregular? What is an auxiliary verb? What are the principal parts? 

THE VERB "TO BE." 

The irregular intransitive verb to be is conju- 
gated as follows : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

singular. Present Tense, plural. 
1st Person, I am, 1st Person, We are, 

2d Person, Thou art, 2d Person, Ye or you are 

3c? Person, He is ; 3d Person, They are. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. Ye or you have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2. Thou wast, 2. Ye or you were, 

3. He was ; 3. They were. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. Ye or you had been, 

3. He had been ; 3. They had been. 



CONJUGATION. 57 

singular. Future Tense. plural. 

1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. Ye or you shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be ; 3. They shall or will be. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall have been, 1. We shall have been, 

2. Thou wilt have been, 2. Ye or you will have been, 

3. He will have been ; 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MOOD. 

singular. Present Tense. plural. 

1. I may or can be, 1. We may or can be, 

2. Thou mayst or canst be, 2. Ye or you may or can be, 

3. He may or can be ; 3. They may or can be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may or can have been, 1. We may or can have been, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 2. Ye or you may or can have 

been, been, 

3. He may or can have been; 3. They may or can have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should be, should be, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

or shouldst be, would, or should be, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should be ; should be. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have been, should have been, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, would, 

or shouldst have been, or should have been, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. They might, could, would, or 

should have been ; should have been, 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

This mood is the same as the indicative, except 
that it is preceded by a conjunction implying 
contingency ', etc.; as, if, though, unless, whether, 
except. Thus, if I am, if I had been, if I were. 

singular. Present Tense. pLUEAL> 

1. If I am, 1. If we are, 

2. If thou art, 2. If ye or you are, 

3. If he is ; 3. If they are. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. If I have been, 1. If we have been, 

2. If thou hast been, 2. If ye or you have been, 

3. If he has been ; 3. If they have been. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I was, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wast, 2. If ye or you were, 

3. If he was ; 3. If they were. 

The verb to be, besides the common form of the 
past tense, has another, which is called the hypothet- 
ical form. This form occurs, of course, in the passive 
voice, in which the verb to be is an auxiliary. It 
differs from the common form in the singular num- 
ber only. 

Past Tense. 
hypothetical form. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou wert, 2. If ye or you were, 

3. If he were; 3. If they were. 

(The pupil may go through the remaining tenses by prefixing 
if to the corresponding tenses of the indicative.) 



CONJUGATION. 



59 



IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. PTTT p AT 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

2. Be thou, or do thou be ; 2. Be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Imperfect, To be; Perfect, To have been. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Imperfect, Being ; Auxiliary, Been ; Perfect, Having been. 

THE VERB "TO LOVE." 

The regular transitive verb to love, in both the 
active and passive voices, is conjugated as follows : 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

active voice. passive voice. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 



1st Person, I love, 

2d Person, Thou lovest, 

3d Person, lie loves ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We love, 

2. Ye or you love, 

3. They love. 



1st Person, I am loved, 
2d Person, Thou art loved, 
Zd Person, He is loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We are loved, 

2. Ye or you are loved, 

3. They are loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 

1. I have loved, 1. I have been loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. Thou hast been loved, 

3. He has loved; 3. He has been loved; 



1. We have loved, 

2. Ye or you have loved, 

3. They have loved. 



1. We have been loved, 

2. Ye or you have been loved, 

3. They have been loved. 



60 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



ACTIVE VOICE. 
SINGULAR. 

1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved; 

PLURAL. 

1. We loved, 

2. Ye or you loved, 

3. They loved. 



passive voice. 
Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

1. I was loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 

3. He was loved. 

PLURAL. 

1. We were loved, 

2. Ye or you were loved, 

3. They were loved. 



Past Perfect Tense. 



1. I had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 

3. He had loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We had loved, 

2. Ye or you had loved, 

3. They had loved. 



1. I had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We had been loved, 

2. Ye or you had been loved,' 

3. They had been loved. 



Future Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. I shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 



3. He shall or will love ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We shall or will love, 

2. Ye or you shall or will love, 

3. They shall or will love. 



3. He shall or will be loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Ye or you shall or will be loved, 

3. They shall or will be loved. 



Future Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 



1. I shall have loved, 1. 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. 

3. He will have loved ; 3. 



I shall have been loved, 
Thou wilt have been loved, 
He will have been loved ; 



1. We shall have loved, 

2. Ye or you will have loved, 

3. They will have loved. 



1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Ye or you will have been loved, 

3. They will have been loved. 



CONJUGATION. 



61 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

active voice. passive voice, 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. 



1. I may or can love, 

2. Thou mayst or canst love, 

3. He may or can love ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We may or can love, 

2. Ye or you may or can love, 

3. They may or can love. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I may or can be loved, 

2. Thou mayst or canst be loved, 

3. He may or can be loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. "We may or can be loved, 

2. Ye or you may or can be loved, 

3. They may or can be loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I may or can have loved, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have 

loved, 

3. He may or can have loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We may or can have loved, 

2. Ye or you may or can have 

loved, 

3. They may or can have 

loved. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I may or can have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst or canst have been 

loved, 

3. He may or can have been loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. We may or can have been loved, 

2. Ye or you may or can have been 

loved, 

3. They may or can have been 

loved. 



Past Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. 

should love, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. 

or shouldst love, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. 

should love; 



PLURAL. 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should love, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should love, 

3. They might, could, would, 

or should love. 



SINGULAR. 

I might, could, would, or 

should be loved, 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

or shouldst be loved, 
He might, could, would, or 

should be loved; 

PLURAL. 

We might, could, would, or 

should be loved, 
Ye or you might, could, would, 

or should be loved, 
They might, could, would, or 

should be loved. 



&2 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



active voice. passive voice. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 

1. I might, could would, or 1. I might, could, would, or 

should have loved, should have heen loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 2. Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, 

or shouldst have loved, or shouldst have been loved, 

3. He might, could, would, or 3. He might, could, would, or 

should have loved ; should have been loved ; 



PLURAL. 

1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved, 

2. Ye or you might, could, 

would, or should have loved, 

3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. 



PLURAL. 

We might, could, would, or 
should have been loved, 

Ye or you might, could, would, 
or should have been loved, 

They might, could, would, or 
should have been loved. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

The auxiliary is often omitted in the future tense ; as, 
if Hove, if thou love, if he love; that is, if I shall love, etc. 



SINGULAR. 

1. If I love, 

2. If thou lovest, 

3. If he loves ; 



Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. 

1. If I am loved, 

2. If thou art loved, 

3. If he is loved ; 



PLURAL. 

1. If we love, 

2. If ye or you love, 

3. If they love. 



PLURAL. 

1. If we are loved, 

2. If ye or you are loved, 

3. If they are loved. 



Present Perfect Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

1. If I have loved, 

2. If thou hast loved, 

3. If he has loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. If we have loved, 

2. If ye or you have loved, 

3. If they have loved. 



SINGULAR. 

1. If I have been loved, 

2. If thou hast been loved, 

3. If he has been loved ; 

PLURAL. 

1. If we have been loved, 

2. If ye or you have been loved, 

3. If they have been loved. 



CONJUGATION. 68 



active voice. passive voice. 

Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 

1. If I loved, 1. If I was loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 2. If thou wast loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If he was loved; 

PLURAL. PLURAL. 

1. If we loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If ye or you loved, 2. If ye or you were loved, 

3. If they loved. 3. If they were loved. 



Past Tense. 
hypothetical form. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 

1. If I loved, 1. If I were loved, 

2. If thou lovedst, 2. If thou wert loved, 

3. If he loved ; 3. If he were loved ; 

PLURAL. PLURAL. 

1. If we loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If ye or you loved, 2. If ye or you were loved, 

3. If they loved. 3. If they were loved. 

[The pupil may go through the remaining tenses by prefixing 
if to the corresponding tenses of the indicative.) 



IMPEKATIVE MOOD. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. SINGULAR. 

2. Love thou, or do thou love ; 2. Be thou loved, or do thou be 

loved ; 

PLURAL. PLURAL. 

2. Love ye or you, or do ye or 2. Be ye or you loved, or do ye 
you love. or you be loved. 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Imperfect, To love ; Imperfect, To be loved ; 

Perfect, To have loved. Perfect, To have been loved. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PARTICIPLES. 

ACTIVE VOICE. PASSIVE VOICE. 

Imperfect, Loving ; Imperfect, Being loved ; 

Auxiliary y Loved ; Auxiliary, Loved ; 

Perfect, Having loved. Perfect, Having been loved. 



EXILES OF SYNTAX. 

Adjectives and participles belong to nouns or 
pronouns ; as, bad men ; this pen ; a hat ; birds 
singing ; I met him running. 

In these examples, the adjective bad belongs to the 
noun men; the adjective this, to the noun pen; the 
adjective (or article) a, to the noun hat ; the participle 
singing, to the noun birds; the participle running, to the 
pronoun him. 

The subject of a finite verb is put in the 
nominative case ; as, "John met James ;" "She 
saw him ;" "He saw her ;" "I am happy." 

In these examples, John is the subject of the verb 
met; she is the subject of the verb saw; he is the subject 
of saw; I is the subject of the verb am; consequently 
they are all put in the nominative case. 

A verb must agree with its subject in number 
and person; as, I write, thou writest, he writes, 
we write. 

In the first example, the verb write agrees with its 
subject, I, and is consequently of the first person and 



RULES OP SYNTAX. 65 

singular number; for a similar reason, writest is of the 
second person singular ; writes, of the third person ; 
write, of the first person plural. 

The object of a transitive verb is put in the 
objective case; as, "The spider caught the fly;" 
"Thomas saw the rabbit;' "The rabbit saw 
him ;" "She knew me." 

In these examples, fly is the object of the transitive 
verb caught; rabbit, of the transitive verb saw ; him, of 
saw; me, of knew; and are all consequently put in the 
objective case. 

The object of a preposition is put in the 
objective case; as, "You spoke about me" 
" Greorge came from Nashville ;" " This book will 
be useful to her" 

In these examples, me is the object of the prepo- 
sition about; Nashville, of from; her, of to; and they 
are therefore put in the objective ease. 

A preposition shows the relation between a 
noun or pronoun and some other word ; as, 
"Andrew spoke about Alfred;" "Be true to 
your trust ;" " This is the way of peace." 

In the first example, the preposition about shows 
the relation between the noun Alfred and the verb 
spoke; in the second, to between the noun trust and 
the adjective true; in the third, of between the nouns 
peace and way. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PAESING. 

To parse a word is to tell its properties and 
its relation to other words. 

Table for Parsing a Noun. 

1. What part of speech — and why? 

2. Common or proper — and why ? 

3. Number — and why? 

4. Gender — and why? 

5. Person — and why ? 

6. Case — and why ? 

7. Eule. 

Table for Parsing an Adjective or Participle. 

1. What part of speech — and why? 

2. If it is a qualifying adjective, Degree — and why ? 

3. Compare it. 

4. To what noun does it belong ? 

5. Eule. 

Table for Parsing a Verb. 

1. What part of speech — and why? 

2. Kegular or irregular — and why ? 

3. Principal parts? 

4. Transitive or intransitive — and why? 

5. If transitive, Active or passive — and why ? 

6. Mood — and why? 

7. Tense — and why? 

8. Inflect the tense. 

9. Number and person — and why ? 
10. Eule. 



PARSING. 67 

Table for Parsing a Preposition. 

1. What part of speech — and why? 

2. Between what words does it show the relation ? 

3. Kule. 

MODEL. 
"John fed the little chickens." 

John is ... a noun — the name of an object; 

proper noun — the name of an individual 

object ; 
in the singular number — it denotes but one 

object ; 
of the masculine gender — it denotes a male ; 
of the third person — the name of an object 

spoken of; 
in the nominative case — the subject of the 

verb fed. 
Rule. — The subject of a finite verb is put in the 

nominative case. 

Fed is .... a verb — a word by which something is 
affirmed ; 

irregular — it does not form its past tense 
and auxiliary perfect participle by 
adding ed to the imperfect infinitive. 

present tense, feed; past tense, fed; par- 
ticiple, fed. 

transitive — it requires an object to com- 
plete the sense; 

active voice — the subject is represented as 
acting ; 

indicative mood — it simply declares a thing; 



08 ENGLISH GRAMMAK. 

Fed is .... past tense — it expresses what took place 
in past time ; 
singular : I fed, thou fedd est, he fed ; 
plural : we fed, you fed, they fed ; 
third person and singular number — because 
the subject (John) is, with which it 
agrees. 
Rule. — A verb agrees with its subject in number 
and person. 

The is .... a limiting adjective — it limits the meaning 
of a noun ; 
it belongs to the noun chickens. 
Rule. — Adjectives and participles belong to nouns 
or pronouns. 

Little is ... a qualifying adjective — it expresses a qual- 
ity belonging to an object ; 
in the positive degree — it simply expresses 
the quality : positive, little ; compar- 
ative, less ; superlative, least ; 
it belongs to the noun chickens. 
Rule. — Adjectives and participles belong to nouns 
or pronouns. 

Chickens is a noun — the name of an object; 

common noun — a name applied to all objects 

of the same class. 
plural number — it denotes more than one 

object ; 
common gender — it denotes living beings 

without reference to sex ; 
third person — spoken of; 
objective case — the object of the transitive 

verb fed. 



PARSING. 69 

Rule. — The object of a transitive verb is put in the 
objective case. 

EXERCISES. 

John fed the little chickens. Thomas struck the large dog. 
James loves good books. Mary wrote a long letter. Julia saw 
strange sights. Josephine will go to Lexington. 

MODEL FOR PARSING A PREPOSITION. 

To is a preposition — it shows the relation between a 
noun and another word. It shows the rela- 
tion between the noun Lexington and the verb 
will go. 
Rule. — A preposition shows the relation between a 
noun or pronoun and some other word. 

EXERCISES. 

That large bird flew over the house. This house was erected 
"by Andrew Curtis. These books will be useful to those young- 
men. Dogs bark. Horses run. John went to school. 

Joseph will go to Memphis. Will Joseph go to Memphis ? 
Jane has read the letter. Has Jane read the letter ? Has William 
dined ? Will that house fall ? Will that boat go over the falls ? 
Has the dog caught the squirrel ? 

The dog will lead the blind man. Many persons have wasted 
time. The breeze is refreshing to the weary laborer. The man 
is indulgent to children. The day is warm. 

The bird was frightened by the noise. The tree was shaken by 
the wind. Some boys have been hated by other boys. The eagle 
has been seen. The wood has been burned in the stove. That 
old house will be destroyed. Has the chair been painted? 

Walter loves raisins. Time conquers all things. The shutters 
have been closed. This paper is good. That new pen is bad. Such 
music is delightful. The caterpillars have eaten the leaves. The 
umbrella was useful to the little girl. Men fight for glory. Blood 
ran in streams. A tree grew by the shady fountain. The work was 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

admired by many persons. The bottle was ground to powder. 
Many chairs were thrown into the river. Every man avoided that 
house. 

That bottle contains ink. The tower fell upon the soldiers. 
The harrow crushed the eggs. Henry will find the cow. The cries 
of the victims ascended to heaven. The weeds have spoiled the 
garden. The wheat has been spoiled by rains. 

Sarah has written four pages. Ten ducks came to the pond. 
Six snakes were killed on the same spot. Sophia was deceived 
by the mischievous boy. The mischievous boy deceived Sophia. 
Alfred has two charming books. 

Eliza lives in that neat cottage. Three merchants will travel 
in that coach. These dogs are confined by chains. The merciful 
man is merciful to beasts. The stars have faded from the sky. 
Those clouds will bring rain. The rose has fallen to the ground. 

Samuel stripped the leaves from the bough. The sun sets at 
night. The stars shun the day. David sinned. The sin was 
forgiven. A good girl is kind to all [persons]. Some [persons] 
delight in tales. All break the commands of God. Some laugh 
at sin. 

Fifty men were employed in that house. That musician played 
a beautiful tune. Some person has broken the glass. The curtain 
has been stained. Martha has clean clothes. Ellen rose at an early 
hour. Two apples are sufficient for one boy. 

The lady will take a walk. The ground will be covered with 
snow. The snow will disappear before night. The mud will be 
deep. Rollo lost a shoe. The tree supports the vine. The hour 
has passed. That black horse is swift. Will the mule win the 
race? 

The old fox ate a hen. The kid jumped over the rock. George 
was diligent in study. The lambs were happy in the fields. Four 
men gathered apples in the orchard. The rat was caught in a trap. 
The trap was made of wire. The sun rises in the east. 

The moon gives light in the night. Stars shine in the clear 
sky. A few logs of wood were burned. The weather was cold. 
All the rivers were frozen. 

This dictionary contains many words. Some leaves are want- 
ing. Little Mary tore that book. William broke the cover. A 
large elephant with long tusks will be exhibited in that tent. 



COMMON ERRORS IN SPEECH. 71 



COMMON ERRORS IN SPEECH. 
i. 

Take up . . for begin, or open; as, "School takes up at nine 
o'clock." 
Correction: "School begins at nine o'clock." 

Let out. . . for end, close, be dismissed; as, "School lets out at 
five o'clock." 

Correction: "School is dismissed at five o'clock." 
Where at . for where; as, " Where is John at?" 

Correction: " Where is John?" 
To for at; as, "John is to home." 

Correction: "John is at home." 
Great big . for very large; as, "A great big apple." 

Correction: "A very large apple." 

Ain't for am not, is not, or are not; as, "The dog ain't 

fierce." 
Correction: "The dog is not fierce." 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences, and tell in what 
the error consists : 

MODEL. 
"The clock ain't right." 

This sentence is wrong. The error consists in the 
use of ain't instead of is not. It should be, "The clock 
is not right." 

Where will you be at ? I will he to home. The meeting will 
let out very soon. But I ain't a-going to wait. Jane did not 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

come till lone; after school took up. A great big boy knocked off 
my cap. "Where did he do it at? 

He sleeps to his uncle's store. The Church took up before ten 
o'clock. I saw two great big dogs worrying a red cow. Are your 
sisters to home ? No, they ain't. Then where are they at? They 
are to school. They will not return till it lets out. It ain't six 
o'clock yet. 

A great big piece of bread was given to the beggar. The beggar 
told us where his children live at. It ain't far from here. 

II. 

Done used with an imperfect participle; as, "I have 

done torn my book." 
Correction: "I have torn my book." 

Use up for wear out, exhaust, or destroy; as, "Intem- 
perance will use up the strongest man." 
Correction: "Intemperance will destroy the 
strongest man." 

Raise or raised for rise or risen; as, "The river has raised six 
feet." 
Correction: "The river has risen six feet." 

Shet for rid; as, "A fool soon gets shet of his 

money." 
Correction: "A fool soon gets rid of his 
money." 

Some for somewhat; as, "The sick man is some bet- 
ter." 
Correction: "The sick man is somewhat bet- 
ter." 

Nothing much . for not much; as, "The traveler didn't eat 
nothing much.''' 1 
Correction: "The traveler did not eat much." 
In connection with this expression, two negatives 
are generally used, as above, making two errors 
in one sentence. 



COMMON ERRORS IN SPEECH. 73 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following examples, and tell in what 
the error consists : 

The dog has done killed the eat. At six o'clock, the creek had 
raised three inches. That is n't nothing much. When you are 
older, I hope you will be some wiser. You must try to get shet 
of all your bad habits. 

That long ride has completely used up the old horse. His 
rider is also pretty well used up. How much of your lesson 
have you done learned ? Oh, nothing much. John is some taller 
than Ann. It will take the merchant a long while to get shet 
of his old goods. 

I and my little brother went to the show, hut there wasn't 
nothing much to see. How much has the Ohio raised since yes- 
terday? I do not know exactly, but it is some higher. The cook 
has done roasted the turkey. 

After their long labors, the soldiers were thoroughly used up. 
Such continued labors would use up the strongest constitutions. 
How much corn have the horses done eaten ? My two brothers 
have done come. The price of tobacco and hemp will raise. It is 
raising every day. It has already raised. 

III. 

No wheres and every wheres for nowhere and every -where; as, 
"The boy was no wheres to be found." 

Correction: "The boy was nowhere to be found." 
Any for at all; as, "He can not see any with one eye." 

Correction : "He can not see at all with one eye." 
Heap of . . . for much, very much; as, " I think a heap of him." 

Correction: "I think much of him." 
Mighty. . . . for very ; as "The king was mighty proud." 

Correction: "The king was very proud." 
Mad for angry, or vexed; as, "Do not get mad. 1 ' 1 

Correction: "Do not get angry, ." 
Ouch for the interjection Oh; as, "Ouch! you hurt me." 

Correction: "Oh! you hurt me." 



.74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 



Correct the following sentences, and tell in what 
the error consists : 

There was a heap of noise in the night. But I did not wake, 
for I was mighty sleepy. The teacher was very mad with his 
boys. I do not wonder, for they give him a heap of trouble. He 
drank a heap of water. 

Ouch ! see that big snake. My eye is so weak that I can not 
see any with it. I had a heap of trouble to find my slate. I looked 
every wheres for it. Some boys get mad for very slight causes. 
"We should be mighty careful not to lose our tempers. 

My brother's toothache is mighty bad. He can not sleep any at 
night. Ouch ! how it makes him cry. The doctor said it would 
be a heap better to have the tooth drawn. But my brother gets 
mad whenever the doctor proposes it. I think he has a heap of 
teeth that ought to be drawn. 

The missing cow is no wheres to be found. She was a mighty 
good cow. She gave a heap of milk. I am very mad that she has 
been stolen. I do not think the thief will be any happier for his 
crime. No wheres on earth is there rest for the wicked. 

Ouch ! there is a horse in the corn-field. How mad the farmer 
will be when he sees it. The horse has done a heap of damage. 
He runs mighty fast. Have you seen the farmer any wheres? 
He is mighty mad with the dog. 

IV. 

Disremember for not remember, forget; as, "I disremember his 
name." 
Correction: "I forget his name." 

Unbeknown . for unknown; as, "He is unbeknown to me." 
Correction: "He is unknown to me." 

That 'air. ... for that; as, "That 'air red cow belongs to my 
neighbor Smith." 
Correction: "That red cow belongs to my neigh- 
bor Smith." 



COMMON ERRORS IN SPEECH. 75 

This 'ere. . . . for this; as, "This 'ere knife is mine." 
Correction: "This knife is mine." 

Hern, hisn, ourn, yourn, theirn, for hers, his, ours, yours, theirs; 
as, "This brush is not ourn, but hisn. 

Correction: "This brush is not ours, but his." 

Like for as, or as if; as, "Do like I do." 

Correction: "Do as I do." It would also be 
correct to say, "Do like me." 

EXERCISES. 

Correct the following sentences, and explain in what 
the error consists : 

Some people disremember their own names. The ship set sail 
unbeknown to the owner. Children often act like their parents do. 
Whose is this 'ere top ? John says it is hisn, but I think not. The 
owner is unbeknown to us all. If it is yourn, you must take better 
care of it. 

The tree looks like it would not live long. That 'air old house 
is where I was born. It used to be ourn, but my father sold it. 
I disremember the name of the buyer. I feel like I ought to know 
this lesson. You act like the foolish boy acted when he kicked the 
stone against which he had struck his foot. 

My mother says she hopes no child of hern will ever tell a lie. 
This 'ere lesson is very easy. But yourn is very hard. That little 
boy cries like he had been hurt. When my sister got home she 
disremembered all that had been said to her. I will give this 'ere 
book for that 'air slate. 

That bag of hern is very pretty. I think it is prettier than 
yourn. Like the snow melts in the river, so man's life vanishes. 
Look at that 'ere horse. It can run twice as fast as this 'ere one. 
The apples fall thick, like the leaves fall in autumn. In the dead 
of night, unbeknown to every one, the house was robbed. I want 
to sell this 'ere fine book. It is not yourn to sell. My cousins say 
it is theirn. I had a very early breakfast, and I feel like I want 
my dinner. 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



V. 
Lay. . . for lie; as, "My book is laying on the floor." 

Correction: "My book is lying on the floor.' 
In .... for into ; as, "He went in the house." 

Correction: "He went into the house." 

Went. . for gone; as, "He has went home." 
Correction: "He has gone home." 

Seen . . for saw; as, "I seen Mary." 

Correction: "I saw Mary." 
Done. . for did; as, "He done very well." 

Correction: "He did very well." 

Set. ... for sit; as, "He is setting on the chair." 

Correction: "He is sitting on the chair." 

Chaw. . for chew; as, "He chaws tobacco." 
Correction: "He chews tobacco." 

Lit. . . . for lighted; as, "The lamp is lit." 
Correction: "The lamp is lighted." 

EXERCISES. 



Correct the following sentences, and tell in what 
the error consists : 

John has been setting all day in the same place. The cat was 
laying on the bed. John had went home before I could see him. 
The cow chawed the cloth. I never done it. Is the fire lit? 

Mary threw the paper in the fire. "What are you chawing ? 
Mary broke her cup in pieces. The pig got in the garden through 
a gap in the fence. 

My uncle lit his pipe with a piece of paper. Godfrey is set- 
ting on the bed. He came in this room. Mary should set up. 
John will lay down. 

The horse ran in the stable. Go in the cellar. George has 
went away. Thomas seen me do it. I had went home. I seen 
the elephant yesterday. I can not lay still. She will not set still. 



COMMON ERRORS IN SPEECH. 77 

Peter is chawing sassafras. Henry plunged in the water. 
Where has my dog went? The town is well lit with gas. I 
saw him run in the house. 

VI. 

Which in asking a question, for what; as, " Which did 

you say ?" 

Correction: "What did you say?" 
Ways for way; as, "I walked a little ways." 

Correction: "I walked a little way." 

Better for more; as, "Her ring cost better than ten dol- 
lars." 
Correction: "Her ring cost more than ten dol- 
lars." 

Cracked up . for represented, or described; as, "The speaker was 

cracked up as very eloquent." 
Correction: "The speaker was described as very 

eloquent." 
Have got to for must; as, "We have got to study, if we wish 

to learn." 
Correction: "We must study, if we wish to 

learn." 
Fix for repair, mend, arrange, ]mt in order, prepare, 

adjust; as, "My shoe is fixed;" "The books 

are fixed on the shelf;" "Every thing has 

been fixed for starting. 

Correction: "My shoe is mended; 1 ' "The books 
are arranged, or put in order, on the shelf;" 
"Every thing has been prepared for starting." 

Fix is also improperly used as a noun for predicament ; 

condition, or state; as, "He is in a bad fix." 
Correction: "He is in a bad predicament, or 
condition." 

Note. — The word fix usually signifies make firm, or fast, 
render immovable, etc. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISES. 



Correct the following sentences, and tell in what 
the error consists : 

The school-house is a great ways from our house. It is better 
than two miles. And the road is not so smooth as it is cracked 
up to be. 

"Which did you say ? We have got to walk fast, or we shall 
be late. The caravan is only a little ways ahead. Some people 
are cracked up as wiser than they really are. 

My coat is torn ; I must get it fixed. Have you fixed your 
desk ? Are the seats properly fixed ? Your room is in a bad fix. 
Fix my hair for me. John fell into a mud-hole, and is in a very 
bad fix. The streets are in a bad fix. You have not fixed the 
chairs. The carriage is fixed, and we can take a ride. Mary 
would not fix my clothes on me. Take your broken desk to the 
carpenter, and have it fixed. The horses can not pull the wagon 
till it is fixed. Fix that table, and then take it to another room. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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STANDARD SCHOC- 003 237 886 9 



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READING AND SPELLING. 

Common School Priiner. 96 pages, 16mo. Cloth backs. 

Webster's Speller and Definer. Being a sequel to the "Elementary 

Speller.'" Cloth backs. 
Butler's First Book in Spelling and Heading. By Noble Butler. 
72 pages, large 16mo. New and elegant illustrations. 
j Butler's Goodrich First Reader. By Noble Butler. 

!-i ..ages, large 16mo. Cloth backs. Elegantly illustrated. 
! Butler's Good ioli Second Be.ader. By Noble Butlep 

144 pages, large j.t ; mo. Half bowud. Elegantly illustrated. 
I Butler's Goodrich Third Header. By Noble Butle;-.. 

216 pages. Embossed baeus. Elegantly illustrated. 
Butler's Goodrich Fourth Reader. By Noble Butleu. 

264 pages, large 12mo. Embossed backs. Elegantly illustrated. 
| Butler's Goodrich Fifth Reader By Noble Butler. 

384 pages, large 12mo. Half roan, embossed. Elegantly illustrated. 
j Butler's Goodrich Sixth Reader. By Noble Butleu. 

For High Schools. 552 pages. Half roan, embossed. 

ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

j Introductory Lessons in English Grammar. By Noble Butler. 
■■ Practical Grammar of the English Language. By Noble Butleu. 

ARITHMETIC AND ALGEBRA. 

B\ P. A. Towne. 
By P. A. Towne. 
By P. A. Towne. 
By P. A. Towne. 
By P. A. Towne. 



Towne's Primary Arithmetic. 
Towne's Intermediate Arithmetic. 
Towne's Practical Arithmetic. 
Towne's Algebra. 
Towne's Key to Algebra. 



ELOCUTION— RHETORIC. 

Butler's Common School Speaker. By Noile Butleu, A. 31. 

Original Dramas. By Mns. Russell Kavasaugii 

Dialogues, Declamations, and Tableaux Vivans, for School Exhibitions, 

May -Day Celebrations, and Parlor Amusement. 
Bionson's Elocution, or Vocal Philosophy. New edition, very 

much 
Bunnell's Manual of Composition. By John M. Bonnell, D. D m 

kMt of the Wesleyan Female G iflege, .Macon. Ga. 
Wbately** Rhetoric. From the last London 8vo edition, with the author's 

latent improvements, l^aio. Clo*h. 
Whately's Logic. Reprinted from the last 8vo London edition. 

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